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ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 


BY 

CHARLES   LANE  HANSON 

Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston 

Editor  of  Carlyle's  "Essay  on  Burns,"  "Representative 

Poems  of  Robert  Burns,"  and  Macaulay's 

"Life  of  Samuel  Johnson'' 

2-3  2.^^ 


GINN  &   COMPANY 

BOSTON  ■  NEW  YORK  •  CHICAGO  •  LONDON 


Copyright,  igo8 
By  CHARLES  LANE  HANSON 


ALL   RIGHTS   RESERVED 
6X1.6 


GINN   &  COMPANY  •   PRO- 
PRIETORS .  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


TO 

MY   MOTHER 

ANNIE   LANE   HANSON 

IN    RECOGNITION    OF 

APPRECIATIVE  AND    INSPIRING 

CRITICISMS 


PREFACE 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  present  the  main  princi- 
ples of  EngHsh  composition  in  so  simple  and  practical  a 
form  that  the  pupil  will  grasp  them  easily  and  will  apply 
them  naturally  in  his  daily  work.  Models  that  have  stood 
the  test  of  the  class  room  —  some  of  them  written  by 
pupils — -are  furnished  to  stimulate  him  to  do  his  best.  He 
is  encouraged  to  make  good  use  of  the  equipment  he  brings 
from  the  lower  schools,  and,  in  a  careful  review,  to  appre- 
ciate the  practical  value  of  the  essentials  of  grammar. 
Special  stress  is  laid  on  the  fact  that  the  pupil  who  wishes 
to  acquire  skill  in  the  use  of  the  mother  tongue  must  not 
rest  satisfied  with  doing  assigned  tasks,  —  that  in  school 
and  out  of  school  he  must  strive  constantly  to  improve  his 
speech  and  his  writing. 

The  plan  of  the  book  is  determined  by  the  purpose.  The 
first  three  chapters  are  introductory.  They  show  that  com- 
position is  inevitable,  yet  attractive  ;  that  the  pupil's  world 
is  so  full  of  interesting  subjects  that  he  should  have  little 
difficulty  in  finding  something  to  say  —  his  concern  should 
be  rather  to  choose  a  limited  subject ;  that  the  writer 
should  constantly  keep  in  mind  the  needs  and  the  pleasure 
of  the  reader. 

The  next  four  chapters  deal  in  a  preliminary  way  with 
the  whole  composition,  the  paragraph,  and  the  sentence, 
and  call  attention  to  the  importance  of  spelling  and  letter 
writing.     Some  of  the  work  in  this  last  chapter  may  be 


vi  PREFACE 

postponed  until  the  pupil  has  studied  with  more  care  the 
paragraph  and  the  sentence. 

The  pupil  is  now  ready  for  a  more  careful  study  of  the 
whole  composition  and  the  paragraph  ;  and  in  the  chapters 
on  sentences  and  words  he  not  only  learns  much  that  is  new 
to  him,  but  also  reviews  grammar  from  a  new  point  of  view. 
Finally  he  is  encouraged  to  follow  carefully  arranged  plans 
in  the  construction  of  more  ambitious  compositions.  From 
the  outset  he  writes  narratives,  descriptions,  and  exposi- 
tions, but  it  does  not  seem  wise  to  classify  these  papers  un- 
til the  comprehensive  treatment  of  the  subject  in  Part  Two 
is  reached.  Here  the  three  principal  forms  of  prose  compo- 
sition are  studied  in  detail,  and  sufficient  attention  is  paid  to 
the  preparation  of  an  argument  to  meet  the  needs  of  debat- 
ing societies  or  of  those  schools  in  which  debating  is  taught. 

For  the  convenience  of  those  teachers  who  wish  to  give 
their  pupils  the  training  which  comes  from  correcting  as 
well  as  from  writing  themes,  the  author  has  included  some 
practical  suggestions  on  the  revision  of  written  work. 
Since,  like  the  rest  of  us,  the  pupil  is  a  better  judge  of 
another's  work  than  of  his  own,  he  may  be  taught  to  exam- 
ine with  fairness  and  discrimination  the  themes  of  his  class- 
mates. He  may  also  learn,  to  revise  his  own  careless  writing 
so  that  the  result  is  satisfactory  to  the  critic.  The  exercises 
for  this  purpose  are  based  on  the  fact  that  it  is  better  to 
fix  the  attention  on  a  few  matters  rather  than  to  divide  it 
among  many.  The  pupil  is  asked,  therefore,  to  apply  one 
new  principle  at  a  time,  but  he  is  also  asked  to  apply  the 
old  principles  again  and  again,  and  through  the  combination 
of  old  and  new  he  accumulates,  by  the  end  of  a  year's  work, 
sufficient  critical  ability  to  enable  him  to  make  a  reasonably 


PRE!  vii 

thorough  examination  of  a  composition.  In  the  course  of 
the  first  nine  chapters  the  pupil  is  asked  to  enter  in  a  note- 
book tweh'e  themes  which  have  been  criticised  by  other 
pupils.  The  author's  conviction  is  that  it  is  not  necessary 
for  the  teacher  to  criticise  all  of  these  themes,  but  that  it  is 
desirable  to  have  the  pupils  use  them  as  the  basis  of  study. 
If  the  pupil  continues  to  add  to  his  collection  throughout 
the  course,  he  will  have  a  considerable  amount  of  written 
work  to  which  he  and  his  classmates  can  turn  from  time  to 
time  as  they  learn  new  principles  and  need  to  test  them  or 
to  apply  them.  Nothing  stimulates  the  pupils  more  than 
the  certainty  that  they  are  making  progress,  and  as  they 
scrutinize  this  store  of  material  —  on  a  spelling  crusade, 
on  a  search  for  sentences  that  are  grammatically  incom- 
plete, on  a  hunt  for  paragraphs  that  need  improving  —  there 
comes,  with  their  increased  ability  to  recognize  faults  and  to 
correct  them,  a  realization  of  their  own  growth. 

The  exercises  are  intended  to  relieve  the  busy  teacher 
at  just  those  points  where  relief  is  most  needed.  Perhaps 
in  no  one  way  will  they  be  more  serviceable  than  in  secur- 
ing the  frank  expression  of  the  pupil's  own  thoughts  and 
feelings. 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  add  that  the  author  appreciates  his 
indebtedness  to  experienced  teachers  from  all  parts  of  the 
country  for  valuable  suggestions.  The  courtesy  of  pub- 
lishers in  giving  him  permission  to  reprint  copyrighted 
material  is  acknowledged  in  footnotes.  In  particular,  he 
is  sincerely  grateful  to  Dr.  D.  O.  S.  Lowell  of  the  Roxbury 
Latin  School  for  reading  the  proof,  and  to  Mr.  Frank  W.  C. 
Ilersey,  instructor  in  English  in  Harvard  University,  for 
his  untiring  assistance  in  various  ways.  r  T   H 


PRE' 


CONTENTS 

PART    ONE 

Chapter  Page 

I.    Introduction  to  Composition i 

II.    The  Choice  of  a  Subject 8 

III.  The  Manuscript ig 

IV.  The  Paragraph  as  a  Unit 27 

V.    The  Sentence  and  its  Punctuation      ....  36 

VI.   Spelling 55 

VII.    Letter  Writing 64 

VIII.   The  Coherent  Paragraph 87 

IX.    The  Emphatic  Paragraph gi 

X.    The  Correct  Sentence gS 

XI.    The  Effective  Sentence 131 

XII.   The  Exact  Word 142 

XIII.    The  Forcible  Word 152 

XIV.    Longer  Compositions 167 

PART  TWO 

XV.   Narration 177 

XVI.    Description ig2 

XVII.   Exposition 206 

XVIII.    Argument 217 

Appendix:  The  Musical  Reading  of  Verse 231 

Index 237 


ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 
PART  ONE 

INTRODUCTION  TO  COMPOSITION 

1.  The  Meaning  of  Composition.  If  a  friend  says  to  you, 
"  I  have  enjoyed  the  vacation,"  he  composes  a  sentence.  He 
puts  words  together  in  such  a  way  that  they  express  one 
thought.  If  he  spends  ten  minutes  in  teUing  you  how  he 
has  enjoyed  the  vacation,  his  talk,  Hke  hi-s  sentence,  is  a 
composition  ;  for  he  has  put  sentences  together  in  such  a  way 
that  they  express  one  thought,  —  that  is,  how  he  has  enjoyed 
the  vacation.  Composition,  then,  as  we  have  used  the  word, 
means  "putting  things  together  so  as  to  make  07ie  thing  out 
of  them,  the  nature  and  goodness  of  which  they  all  have  a 
share  in  producing.  Thus  a  musician  composes  an  air  by 
putting  notes  together  in  certain  relations ;  a  poet  composes 
a  poem  by  putting  words  and  thoughts  in  pleasant  order; 
and  a  painter,  a  picture,  by  putting  thoughts,  forms,  and 
colors  in  pleasant  order."  ^ 

2.  Oral  Composition.  On  the  street,  in  our  homes,  in  the 
history  recitation,  from  morning  till  night,  we  are  compos- 
ing sentences.    Each  of  these  sentences  may  be  called  an 

1  Ruskin,  "  The  Elements  of  Drawing,"  letter  iii. 


2  INTRODUCTION  TO   COMPOSITION 

oral  composition.  So  any  talk  on  one  subject  with  the  pur- 
pose of  calling-  attention  to  one  thought  —  whether  the  talk 
consists  of  a  single  sentence  or  of  a  thousand  sentences — is 
an  oral  composition.  Every  part  of  it  contributes  its  share 
toward  making  one  thing,  whether  that  one  thing  be  sen- 
tence or  oration  ;  and  it  is  of  great  importance  that  we 
should  so  put  our  words  together  that  our  hearers  shall  get 
the  one  thought  or  the  one  feeling  which  we  try  to  give  them. 
3.  Written  Composition.  At  the  same  time  we  must  be 
able  to  compose  in  writing.  As  by  talking  a  man  learns  to 
talk  readily,  so  by  writing  he  learns  to  express  himself  with 
accuracy.  For  all  of  us,  moreover,  some  form  of  writing  is  a 
part  of  the  day's  work,  and  it  is  for  the  sake  of  gaining  the 
ability  to  write  well  such  notes  and  letters  and  reports  and 
other  papers  as  we  shall  be  called  on  to  compose  from  time 
to  time,  as  well  as  for  the  sake  of  improving  our  speech, 
that  we  study  written  composition. 

EXERCISE 

Answer  the  following  questions  orally : 

1.  For  what  reasons  should  the  study  of  both  oral  and  written 
composition  be  interesting  as  well  as  valuable  ? 

2.  Which  of  these  two  kinds  of  composition  offers  the  better 
opportunities  for  your  teacher  to  help  you  ? 

3.  Which  offers  the  better  opportunities  for  you  pupils  to 
help  one  another  ? 

4.  Which  are  you  likely  to  remember  better,  criticisms  of  your 
speech  or  criticisms  of  your  writing  ? 

If  you  would  learn  to  write,  there  are  just  three  steps  to 
take, — the  ABC  of  writing:  Open  your  eyes  and  your  ears; 
Think  for  yourself;  Write. 


WRITTEN   COMPOSITION  3 

I.    Open  your  Eyes  and  your  Ears 

See  and  hear  what  is  going  on  about  you.  How  are  you 
to  have  something  to  say?  You  cannot  possibly  help  it. 
Tiny  children  use  their  eyes  and  their  ears  and  then  tell  us 
what  they  see  and  hear.  If  you  cannot  make  a  long  story 
out  of  a  short  one,  tell  the  short  one.  If  you  have  no  im- 
agination, or  think  you  have  none,  do  not  for  the  present 
undertake  imaginative  writing,  but  cojifine  yourself  to  what 
you  see  and  hear.  Open  your  eyes  and  your  ears  and  then 
share  your  experiences  with  others. 

Read  with  open  eyes.  When  we  are  very  young,  we 
read  merely  for  the  sake  of  the  story,  or  plot ;  as  we  grow 
more  mature,  we  crave  something  more  than  excitement, — 
1  we  begin  to  appreciate  little  touches  that  make  the  differ- 
ence between  the  commonplace  and  the  beautiful.  This 
development  of  taste  means  everything  to  one  who  would 
write  well.  J 

Read  with  open  ears.  One  good  test  of  a  book  is  to 
see  whether  it  will  bear  reading  aloud.  The  same  test  is 
a  capital  one  to  apply  to  our  own  work.  It  is  likely  to  call 
attention  to  tiresome  repetition  of  words  or  sounds,  to 
unnecessary  words,  and  to  awkward  constructions.  If  we 
would  learn  to  write  in  a  pleasing  style,  we  should  form 
the  habit  of  reading  aloud  and  reciting  prose  which  satisfies 
the  ear. 

Your  reading  should  be  smooth.     Much  reading  is  jerky 

•and  uncertain  because  we  do  not  take  pains  to  send  the  eye 

ahead  of  the  voice.     If  you  will  increase  day  by  day  the 

number  of  words  that  you  can  retain  with  one  glance,  you 

will  make  steady  progress.    Get  a  whole  sentence  if  you  can. 


4  INTRODUCTION  TO   COMPOSITION 

At  any  rate  look  through  the  sentence  so  carefully  that  you 
can  discriminate  in  your  reading  between  the  main  thought 
and  the  subordinate  thought.  If  the  sentence  has  a  main 
thought,  it  is  your  business  to  bring  out  that  main  thought 
in  your  reading. 

Your  reading  should  be  sympatJietic.  No  matter  how  well 
the  author  of  your  selection  has  done  his  part  of  the  work, 
you  still  have  an  important  part  to  do.  You  may  have  the 
knowledge  of  an  encyclopedia,  but  without  the  power  to  feel 
you  may  not  hope  to  interest  your  listeners.  You  must  see 
what  the  author  saw,  feel  what  he  felt,  and  then  get  your 
hearers  to  feel  as  you  feel.     ' 

Your  reading  should  be  nmsical.  In  order  to  please  sen- 
sitive ears  the  voice  must  adapt  itself  to  the  thought  and 
its  expres^on.  Like  the  perfect  adjustment  of  words  to 
thoughts,  the  harmonious  rendering  of  prose  or  verse  is 
something  to  strive  for  —  an  object  all  the  more  interest- 
ing and  fascinating  because  it  is  difficult  to  attain.  We 
are  not  so  likely  to  connect  musical  reading  with  prose  as 
with  verse,- — poetical  composition, — but  there  is  no  reason 
why  we  should  not  do  so.  In  reading  verse  we  must  note 
the  regularity  of  the  accent.  In  prose  the  ebb  and  flow  is 
neither  so  regular  nor  so  noticeable. ^ 

To  recite  good  English  is  no  less  important  than  to  read 
aloud.  When  you  commit  passages  to  memory,  learn  only 
such  selections  as  you  are  willing  to  live  with  for  weeks, 
to  say  over  scores  of  times,  to  make  your  own.  They  will 
become  a  part  of  you  —  therefore  they  should  be  valuable 
in  themselves  ;  they  will  help  form  your  style  of  speaking, 
and  so  of  writing — therefore  they  should  be  illustrations  of 

1  For  suggestions  on  the  musical  reading  of  verse  see  Appendix. 


WRITTEN   COMPOSITION  5 

English  that  is  clear,  direct,  simple;  you  are  to  make  them 
interesting  —  therefore  you  should  make  them  your  own 
sentiments  as  really  as  if  you  had  written  them. 

Having  made  such  a  choice,  you  will  be  almost  sure  to 
make  your  delivery  clear,  interesting,  and  pleasing.  First 
of  all  you  must  have  a  thorough  understanding  of  your 
selection.  Then  you  should  read  it  aloud  so  many  times 
that  you  find  yourself  entering  heartily  into  the  spirit  of  it 
—  until  it  almost  seems  as  if  you  had  written  it.  Finally 
you  should  rehearse  it  to  some  critic  till  he  is  satisfied  that 
the  delivery  is  reasonably  smooth  and  finished. 

II.    T J  link  for  Yoiirself 

Whatever  your  subject,  think  for  yourself.  Then,  and 
then  only,  will  your  writing  be  your  own  ;  it  will  have  indi- 
viduality ;  it  will  be  different  from  the  work  of  anybody 
else.  Honest  attempts  to  give  the  best  expression  to  your 
own  thoughts\will  call  out  the  most  helpful  criticisms  from 
your  teacher.  It  is  always  a  pleasure  and  often  an  inspira- 
tion to  work  with  a  young  writer  who  is  eager  to  be  himself 
— not  an  echo  of  another  person.  Know  a  few  things  and 
learn  how  to  write  about  them  so  clearly  that  it  will  be 
evident  that  you  know.  them.  Do  a  deal  of  vigorous  think- 
ing about  other  things,  and  if  you  write  frankly,  your  work 
will  be  likely  to  show  that  you  have  been  thinking. 

III.    Write 

A  friend  of  yours  can  tell  stories  by  the  hour,  but  it 
may  be  that  he  cannot  easily  write  them.  You  gladly 
tell  your  experiences  to  your  brother,  but  you  would  be 


6  INTRODUCTION   TO   COMPOSITION 

slow  about  putting  on  paper  the  material  that  you  use  so 
freely  in  talking  with  him.  Writing  is  largely  a  matter  of 
habit.  Some  of  you  who  talk  readily  have  not  been  accus- 
tomed to  writing.  The  words  that  come  so  eagerly  when 
you  let  the  story  tell  itself  halt  on  their  way  down  the  pen- 
holder, lag  behind,  and  fail  to  put  in  an  appearance.  This 
you  must  not  allow.  Forget  that  you  ever  saw  a  grammar, 
a  rhetoric,  or  any  other  book  about  English,  good  or  bad. 
Write.  Write  for  the  sake  of  forming  the  habit  of  writing, 
and  don't  let  your  pencil  interfere  with  the  torrent  of  words. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Prepare  to  read  to  the  class  the  selection  from  "The 
Voyage,"  page  28.  First  read  it  aloud  to  yourself.  Send 
the  eye  ahead  of  the  voice.  If  you  stumble  over  a  word,  or 
pause  in  the  wrong  place,  read  the  sentence  till  you  can  read 
it  smoothly. 

2.  After  preparing  in  a  similar  way  the  selection  entitled 
"Thackeray  and  the  Oyster,"  page  180,  read  it  to  some 
member  of  your  family,  or  some  friend  who  is  likely  to  be 
interested,  and  see  whether  you  read  it  so  as  to  please  the 
listener.    Give  the  class  an  oral  account  of  your  experiment. 

3.  Read  to  the  class  the  following  selections  : 

1.  "Baby's  First  Shoes,"  page  30. 

2.  Selection  from  "  The  Jungle  Book,"  page  139. 

3.  "  Nehushta,"  page  199. 

4.  "A  Football  Player,"  page  15. 

5.  Selection  from  "  Enoch  Arden,"  page  197. 

6.  "Incident  of  the  French  Camp,"  page  184. 

4.  Commit  to  memory  that  one  of  the  selections  men- 
tioned in  the  preceding  exercise  which  you  consider  best 


ORAL  AND  WRITTEN  7 

worth  remembering.  Recite  it  to  the  class  as  you  would 
if  you  had  written  it  yourself. 

5.  Give  the  substance  of  what  this  chapter  contains 
under  the  three  directions  for  learning  to  write.  Make 
careful  preparation,  so  that  you  can  speak  without  hesita- 
tion. Feel  free  to  express  yourself  in  your  own  way.  Do 
not  think  that  you  must  reproduce  the  language  of  the  book. 

Keep  in  mind  the  following  plan  : 

I.  Open  your  eyes  and  your  ears. 

1.  See  and  hear  what  is  going  on  about  you. 

2.  Read 

a.  with  open  eyes. 

b.  to  open  ears, 
(i)   smoothly. 

(2)  sympathetically. 

(3)  musically. 

3.  Recite  good  English. 
n.  Think  for  yourself. 

in.  Write. 

In  preparing  a  composition,  whether  oral  or  written,  it  is 
wise  (i)  to  plan  your  work,  and  (2)  to  talk  the  subject  over 
with  other  persons.  The  more  you  talk  about  it,  the  more 
likely  you  are  to  know  just  what  you  wish  to  say,  and  to 
compose  in  a  style  that  is  smooth  and  agreeable. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT 

The  question  is  not  "  What  shall  I  say?"  but  "What  do  I  know? 
What  am   1   thinking  about?" 

4.  Subjects  based  on  Experience.  In  the  course  of  time 
you  will  have  opportunities  for  investigating  unfamiliar  sub- 
jects, but  at  first  you  will  do  well  to  tell  what  you  have 
seen  and  heard  and  done  and  been  thinking  about.  Gradu- 
ally you  will  learn  how  to  make  the  most  of  good  material. 

EXERCISE 

Discuss  the  possibilities  of  the  following  subjects.  Make 
a  list  of  ten  so  revised  that  you  can  talk  or  write  on  them 
to  advantage.  Keep  the  list,  and  add  to  it  others  suggested 
by  them. 

1.  A  Walk. 

2.  The  Cooking  of  Starchy  Foods. 

3.  A  Fallen  Live  Wire. 

4.  The  Soldier  in  the  Spanish  War. 

5.  A  Practical  Joke. 

6.  An  Accident. 

7.  The  X  Ray. 

8.  Things  seen  from  the  Train. 

9.  Daily  Work  at  Home. 

10.  Work  in  School. 

11.  My  Favorite  Game. 

12.  A  Runaway  Steam  Car. 

13.  Strange  Things  heard  on  a  Fishing  Trip, 

8 


BOOKS  THAT  SUGGEST  GOOD  SUBJECTS         ii 

Pilgrim's  Progress,  The John  Bunyan 

Plutarch's  Lives 

Poor  Richard's  Almanac Benjamin  Franklin 

Prince  and  the  Pauper,  The  ....  Mark  Twain 

Quentin  Durward Walter  Scott 

Ramona Helen  Hunt  Jackson 

Rob  Roy         Walter  Scott 

Scott,  Life  of John  G.  Lockhart 

Scottish  Chiefs Jane  Porter 

Sharp  Eyes W.  H.  Gibson 

Standish  of  Standish Jane  G.  Austin 

Tales  from  Shakespeare Charles  Lamb 

Tales  of  a  Grandfather Walter  Scott 

Tales  of  a  Traveler Washington  Irving 

Talisman,  The Walter  Scott 

Tom  Brown's  School  Days      ....  Thomas  Hughes 

Treasure  Island        Robert  Louis  Stevenson 

Wake  Robin        John  Burroughs 

Wilderness  Ways W.  J.  Long 

Woodstock  • Walter  Scott 


EXERCISES 

1.  As  you  read  the  foregoing  titles  of  books  and  the 
names  of  the  authors,  you  will  think  of  subjects  —  books, 
incidents,  or  characters  —  on  which  you  have  something  to 
say.  For  example,  you  may  not  have  read  "The  Abbot," 
but  the  sight  of  Scott's  name  may  remind  you  that  you 
have  read  "Quentin  Durward"  or  "  Ivanhoe  "  or  "Kenil- 
worth,"  and  you  may  have  some  opinion  not  only  of  one  of 
these  books  as  a  whole,  but  of  several  incidents  or  char- 
acters in  it.    Make  a  list  of  all  such  subjects. 

2.  Write  the  titles  of  all  the  books  in  the  list  that 
you  remember  reading.    Underscore  once  those  which  you 


12  THE  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT 

disliked,  twice  those  which  you  hkcd  fairly  well,  and  three 
times  those  which  you  are  very  glad  you  read.^ 

6.  Limited  Subjects.  After  we  have  chosen  a  subject 
which  seems  suitable,  we  may  find  that  we  lack  both  time 
and  space  for  a  treatment  of  it  which  shall  be  satisfac- 
tory either  to  ourselves  or  to  our  readers.  Then  it  is  that 
we  should  consider  whether  we  can  make  the  whole  sub- 
ject as  interesting  as  we  can  make  a  portion  of  it.  We  may 
adopt  either  of  two  plans  :  we  may  discuss  the^^whole  sub- 
ject briefly,  or  we  may  discuss  a  small  part  of  the  subject 
fully.    Let  us  examine  both  methods. 

I.  We  may  discuss  the  whole  subject  briefly.  A  pupil 
who  read  "The  President's  Message  "  gave  in  his  notebook 
a  summary  of  the  whole  message. 

The  President's  Mess.age 
(December  7,  1S98) 

The  annual  report  of  President  McKinley  was  made  public 
last  Monday.  It  is  very  long  and  every  point  is  enlarged  upon 
too  much.    Still  it  is  interesting  reading. 

He  occupies  half  the  report  in  telling  about  the  late  war,  from 
the  time  of  the  Cuban  insurrection  in  1895  to  the  signing  of  the 
peace  treaty  in  Paris. 

He  writes  about  the  blowing  up  of  the  Maine,  Dewey's  victory, 
Hobson's  bravery,  and  the  Sampson-Schley  affair. 

He  then  considers  other  subjects,  such  as  our  relations  with 
other  countries,  especially  the  South  American  republics. 

The  annexation  of  Hawaii  is  a  subject  to  which  he  devotes 
considerable  space.  The  seizing  of  the  Samoan  group  of  islands, 
on  the  death  of  the  Saijioan  king,  by  the  U.S.S.  Adams,  —  which 

1  If  time  serves,  it  will  be  interesting  and  suggestive  to  have  some  of  these  lists 
read  to  the  class. 


LIMITED   SUBJECTS  13 

was  only  a  wooden  gunboat,  —  and  the  holding  of  it  against  a  fleet 
of  German  armorclads,  is  a  feat  worthy  of  notice. 

He  writes  about  our  trade  with  China  and  India,  and  the  want 
of  a  large  squadron  of  powerful  war  ships  on  the  Pacific. 

2.  We  may  discuss  a  small  part  of  the  subject  fully.  In 
the  same  notebook  the  writer,  instead  of  reporting  a  lecture 
on  Japan  as  a  whole,  limited  himself  to  a  small  part  of  the 
subject,  as  follows : 

Last  evening  I  attended  a  lecture  on  Japan  given  by  Miss 
Mary  A.  Robinson,  a  missionary.  She  told  some  very  entertain- 
ing stories  about  the  Japanese  and  their  customs.  I  was  par- 
ticularly interested  in  her  account  of  New  Year's  week.  It  is 
proper  to  go  visiting  and  to  enjoy  life  at  that  time,  but  no  work 
should  be  done.  In  entertaining  the  visitors  the  host  brings  out 
ten  trays,  each  divided  into  partitions  and  each  partition  full  of 
food.  It  is  customary  merely  to  taste  the  food,  but  Miss  Robin- 
son, not  knowing  this,  once  ate  until  she  could  eat  no  more. 
Still  there  were  three  full  trays  left.  She  thanked  her  host  and 
returned  home,  but  judge  of  her  astonishment  on  being  told  that 
she  had  eaten  the  food  which  the  servant  had  expected  to  last  for 
a  whole  week. 

The  Time  Limit.  In  choosing  a  small  part  of  the  sub- 
ject we  can  sometimes  tell  about  something  that  happened 
in  a  brief  interval  of  time  —  perhaps  something  that  hap- 
pened in  less  time  than  it  takes  to  tell  it. 

An  Exciting  Moment 

Just  before  the  war  of  1861  I  came  as  cabin  boy  from  Liver- 
pool to  New  York.  One  day  as  I  stood  on  deck,  looking  in  the 
direction  of  my  far-off  home,  I  saw  a  speck  in  the  distance,  right 
in  our  path.  I  watched  it  intently ;  it  grew  larger  and  larger  as 
we  neared  it,  and  I  soon  saw  that  it  was  a  man-of-war.  At  the 
same  time  my  curiosity  was  aroused  by  the  general  confusion  on 


14  THE  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT 

our  boat,  so  different  from  the  quiet  of  a  moment  before.  When 
I  asked  my  friend,  the  second  mate,  what  it  all  meant,  he  said, 
"  We  are  pursued  by  a  hostile  cruiser,  and  if  you  care  for  your  life 
you  had  better  go  to  the  cabin."  Several  women  on  deck  heard 
this  remark,  which  was  evidently  meant  for  them  as  well  as  for 
me,  and  hastened  downstairs.  1  followed  them.  It  it  was  confu- 
sion on  deck,  it  was  panic  in  the  cabin.  Every  face  was  pale  with 
fear  ;  some  talked,  others  wept. 

Suddenly  the  cabin  door  opened  and  the  burly  captain  walked 
slowly  in.  He  uttered  the  word  "silence"  so  harshly  that  no  one 
dared  do  otherwise  than  obey.  Then  he  called  the  men  and 
began  to  give  orders.  Every  one  was  willing  to  do  his  part.  Some 
covered  the  name  of  the  ship  at  the  stern  with  canvas ;  others 
took  the  names  off  the  bow.  Each  man  seized  the  first  thing  he 
saw  which  resembled  a  gun.  Three  men  emptied  a  hogshead, 
pulled  it  on  deck,  and  beat  it  loudly.  Across  the  water  this 
sounded  much  like  a  drum.  All  was  bustle  and  hurry  ;  every  one 
was  eagerly  fulfilling  the  orders  of  the  captain. 

My  curiosity  got  the  better  of  my  fear  and  I  crept  up  on  deck 
again.  The  vessel  was  very  near  now,  and  the  soldiers,  standing 
with  guns  pointed  at  me,  sent  a  shiver  through  my  whole  body. 

The  vessel  passed  us  several  times,  but  as  we  kept  some 
distance  from  them,  they  could  find  no  clew  to  our  identity, 
and  finally,  deciding  that  we  were  a  man-of-war,  left  us  un- 
harmed. 

The  cabin  boy's  daughter  wrote  the  incident  a&  her  father 
told  it  to  her.  The  paper  has  been  rewritten.  The  first 
copy,  entitled  "  From  Liverpool  to  New  York,"  tried  to 
tell  of  the  entire  trip  on  four  pages  of  composition  paper. 
The  recasting  shows  the  value  of  a  subject  so  limited  that 
the  treatment  may  be  full.  Another  pupil,  who  told  in  six 
pages  of  her  aunt's  journey  through  Europe,  vastly  improved 
her  work  by  writing  of  the  visit  to  a  corner  of  Westminster 
Abbey. 


LIMITED  SUBJECTS  15 

In  "An  Exciting  Moment  "  the  title,  as  well  as  the  sub- 
ject, shows  that  the  time  is  limited.  In  the  following  verses 
note  how  limited  the  subject  is  —  not  the  title.  The  author 
does  not  attempt  to  describe  the  game  ;  he  singles  out  one 
man  and  admires  him  as  he  stands  ready  for  the  opponent 
and  then  rushes  to  the  attack.  If  you  are  interested  in 
football  and  will  read  the  lines  aloud  with  the  vigor  they 
demand,  you  can  hardly  fail  to  enjoy  them. 

A  Football  Player 

If  I  could  paint  you,  friend,  as  you  stand  there, 
Guard  of  the  goal,  defensive,  open-eyed. 
Watching  the  tortured  bladder  slide  and  glide 
Under  the  twinkling  feet ;  arms  bare,  head  bare, 
The  breeze  a-tremble  through  crow-tufts  of  hair ; 
Red-brown  in  face,  and  ruddier  having  spied 
A  wily  foeman  breaking  from  the  side ; 
Aware  of  him,  —  of  all  else  unaware  : 
If  I  could  limn  you,  as  you  leap  and  fling 
Your  weight  against  his  passage,  like  a  wall ; 
Clutch  him,  and  collar  him,  and  rudely  cling 
For  one  brief  moment  till  he  falls  —  you  fall : 
My  sketch  would  have  what  Art  can  never  give  — 
Sinew  and  breath  and  body ;  it  would  live. 

E.  C.  Lefroy 

If  you  were  to  make  a  piece  of  sculpture,  how  much  of 
this  material  could  you  use  ?  How  much,  if  you  were  to 
paint  the  picture .?  Does  the  writer  have  any  advantages 
over  the  painter  and  the  sculptor  ? 

It  is  probably  evident  that,  as  a  rule,  a  composition  is 
more  likely  to  be  interesting  if  the  subject  is  so  limited 
that  the  treatment  may  be  full.     Now  and  then  a  brief 


1 6  THE  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT 

outline  of  a  large  subject  may  be  valuable,  but  usually  the 
narrower  the  subject  the  more  likely  are  we  to  make  our 
account  of  it  readable.  The  following  list,  which  is  taken 
from  a  pupil's  notebook,  shows  how  easy  it  is  to  find  such 
subjects  :  The  Race  Riot  in  Wilmington,  N.C.,  The  Use  of 
the  T  Square,  On  the  Way  to  School,  Signing  the  Peace 
Treaty,  The  Six  Days'  Race,  The  Fire  Department  on 
the  Way  to  the  Fire,  The  Eclipse  of  the  Moon,  A  Steam 
Shovel,  A  Free  Ride,  The  Police  Ambulance,  Senator 
Hoar's  Speech,  Three  Chapters  of  "Ivanhoe,"  In  a  Grocery 
Store,  Another  Chapter  of  "Ivanhoe,"  Down  Broadway 
Hill,  Three  Chapters  of  "  Ivanhoe,"  In  the  Carpenter  Shop, 
A  Newsboy,  A  Horseless  Carriage,  Absent  from  School, 
Shoveling  Snow,  Delay  on  the  Bridge,  A  Glimpse  of  Presi- 
dent McKinley,  A  Minstrel  Show,  The  Store  in  which 
I  work  on  Saturdays,  Our  Hut,  Chickens,  A  Horse,  A 
Hard  Task,  Two  Happy  Boys. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Limit  five  of  the  subjects  under  section  4,  page  8,  so 
that  a  small  part  of  the  subject  may  be  discussed  fully. 

2.  Apply  the  time  limit  to  five  of  the  subjects. 

3.  Make  a  Hst  of  prominent  buildings,  and  in  discussing 
them  show  how  subjects  multiply  if  you  take  pains  to  make 
the  most  of  your  material.  If,  for  example,  you  consider 
the  possibilities  of  the  public  library,  you  may  describe  the 
entrance,  a  room,  a  picture,  a  bookcase,  or  the  librarian. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  indoor  and  outdoor  games  you 
enjoy  playing.^ 

1  Most  of  the  class  will  be  able  to  add  to  their  lists,  if  some  of  the  longest  lists  are 
written  on  the  blackboard. 


LIMITED   SUBJECTS  1 7 

5.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  indoor  and  outdoor  games  you 
enjoy  watching. 

6.  Keeping  in  mind  the  suggestion  about  limited  subjects, 
cull  from  the  foregoing  lists  those  on  which  you  have  some- 
thing to  say.  Arrange  them  so  that  they  will  be  convenient 
for  reference. 

7.  Be  prepared  to  write  a  secretary's  report  of  the  next 
recitation  in  English.  It  is  the  duty  of  such  a  reporter  to 
pick  out  the  important  points  and  to  give  information  about 
them  in  a  clear,  concise  way.  Some  matters  he  may  pass 
over,  some  he  should  merely  mention,  and  others  he  should 
treat  fully.  The  following  record,  by  the  class  secretary 
for  the  day,  explains  itself. 

Report  of  the  English  Class 
(February  28,  1905) 

After  Miss  had  read   the   secretary's  report,   Mr.  

showed  us  a  picture,  "  The  Angelus,"  about  which  we  had  a  little 
talk  the  other  day.  Then  he  distributed  some  papers  to  be  cor- 
rected by  the  class. 

Master read  his  account  of  Macaulay's  early  life  and  sev- 
eral pupils  criticised  it. 

To-day  the  following  are  to  speak  :   Misses ,  , , 

,  ,  and  ;  and  Masters  ,  ,  ,  , 

and  .    For  to-day's  lesson  we  are  to  write  in  our  notebooks 

what  we  know  of  the  early  life  of  Macaulay. 

After  giving  out  the  lesson,  the  teacher  asked  how  many  of  us 
were  familiar  with  several  of  Longfellow's  poems,  especially 
"  Evangeline  "  and  "  Hiawatha."  He  suggested  that  it  would  be 
well  for  us  to  read  some  of  the  earlier  poems,  and  asked  us  to 
write  in  our  notebooks  what  we  could  find  about  the  poet's  early 
life.  We  are  to  look  up  the  connection  between  "  The  Skeleton 
in  Armor  "  and  the  city  of  Fall  River,  and  the  difference  between 


1 8  THE   CHOICE   OF  A   SUBJECT 

a  ballad  and  a  song.    If  we  like,  we  may  try  our  hand  at  a  little 
verse,  just  to  see  what  we  can  do. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

Annie  M.  Williams.^ 

1  Some  teachers  of  English  find  it  convenient  to  have  such  a  report  written  in 
connection  with  each  recitation.  An  arrangement  which  has  proved  very  satisfactory 
is  to  set  apart  a  notebook  for  such  reports.  In  this  notebook  A  writes  his  report  of 
to-day's  recitation,  reads  it  at  the  next  recitation,  and  passes  the  book  to  B,  who  in 
turn  is  secretary  for  the  day  and  hands  the  book  to  C.  Not  only  is  the  exercise  a 
good  one,  but  the  secretary's  book  is  convenient  both  for  calling  attention  to  the 
business  of  the  day  and  for  enabling  a  pupil  who  has  been  absent  to  find  out  just 
what  work  he  must  make  up. 


CHAPTER   III 
THE  MANUSCRIPT 

"  Manuscript,  we  believe,  takes  precedence  of  print.  Most  of  us  will 
read  a  letter  before  we  will  read  a  book."  —  N.  P.  Willis. 

7.  Neatness.  What  cleanliness  is  to  the  man,  neatness 
is  to  the  manuscript.  Whether  a  paper  has  ten  words  or 
ten  thousand,  whether  it  be  a  note  to  a  friend  or  a  petition 
to  the  President  of  the  United  States,  it  should  be  neat  and 
attractive. 

8.  The  Margin.  There  should  be  a  margin  about  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  wide  on  the  left-hand  side  of  every  page. 
Of  course  the  width  of  the  margin  varies  with  the  width  of 
the  paper. 

9.  The  Heading.  Whatever  the  teacher  wishes  the  head- 
ing to  include,  —  say  the  date,  the  pupil's  name  and  class, 
and  the  title,  —  should  be  separated  from  what  follows 
by  a  blank  line.  An  important  part  of  the  heading  is  the 
title.  Three  suggestions  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  choos- 
ing a  title  : 

1.  It  should  be  brief.  As  a  substitute  for  the  long  and 
cumbrous  statement  of  the  subject,  "A  Picture  that  I  saw  at 
the  Art  Museum,"  one  writer  chose  the  brief  title,  ''Friends." 
Better  than  "  How  we  spent  a  Pleasant  Evening "  is  "A 
Pleasant  Evening." 

2.  It  should  be  to  the  point.  Instead  of  using -such  a 
general  title  as  "An  Incident,",  it  is  always  well  to  pick 
out   something  that   applies  to  the   particular  incident  in 

19 


20  THE  MANUSCRIPT 

question.  You  might  label  each  one  of  a  hundred  papers 
"An  Incident,"  but  you  should  try  to  find  for  each  of  them 
a  title  so  decidedly  to  the  point  that  it  would  not  fit  any 
of  the  others. 

3.  It  should  be  an  attractive  announcement  of  the  sub- 
ject. "On  the  River"  is  neater  and  more  attractive  than 
"  A  Three  Hours'  Row  on  the  River."  The  subject  treated 
in  scores  of  books  is  "  English  Grammar  ";  the  title  of  one 
such  book  is  "The  Mother  Tongue."  "English  Grammar" 
may  suggest  various  difficulties  and  numerous  dry  chapters. 
"The  Mother  Tongue  "  sounds  as  if  the  book  would  appeal 
to  all  who  speak  the  English  language.  Your  title,  like  a 
nutshell,  should  give  a  correct  impression  of  the  kind  of 
meat  it  offers  you,  and  it  should  be  so  attractive  that  the 
wayfaring  man  will  be  eager  to  devour  what  it  has  in  store. 

Note.  A  composition  should  be  complete  without  a  title.  If  you 
are  writing  about  Fred  Brown,  do  not  try  to  avoid  repetition  by  be- 
ginning "  He  is  a  boy  of  my  age,"  but  use  your  title  —  or  as  much  as 
you  need  of  it  —  in  your  opening  sentence.  You  could,  for  example, 
say,  "  Fred  Brown  is  a  boy  of  my  age." 

EXERCISES 

1.  The  following  incident  appeared  in  a  magazine  under 
the  title  "What  it  was  They  Heard."  Tell  why  or  why 
not  that  is  a  better  title  for  it  than  "The  Indian  and  the 
Phonograph."  Can  you  think  of  one  that  you  like  better 
than  either } 

On  a  recent  visit  to  Baltimore,  Bishop  Rowe  of  Alaska  told 
the  following  good  story  :  "  I  had  recently  to  make  a  visit  to  a 
tribe  of  Indians  far  from  the  places  where  the  white  men  go. 
Only  a  very  few  of  the  tribe  had  ever  seen  white  men.  One  of 
the  members  of  our  party  had  a  phonograph.    He  thought  it 


THE  TITLE  21 

would  amuse  the  Indians,  and  so  brought  it  out.  They  gathered 
round  it  in  wonder,  and  spent  some  time  looking  at  it  from  every 
direction.  At  last  the  old  chief  got  down  on  his  knees  and 
peered  into  it.  He  raised  himself,  threw  his  arm  out  with  a 
sweeping  gesture,  and  said,  '  Ugh  !  canned  white  man.'  " 

2.  Discuss  the  titles  of  six  books,  magazines,  or  news- 
papers. Are  they  effective.?  misleading.?  attractive.?  neat.? 
easy  to  remember .? 

10.  The  Sentence  and  its  Punctuation.  Ancient  manu- 
scripts were  written  continuously,  thus  : 

ONEWORDFOLLOWEDANOTHERCLOSELY 

Afterwards  the  w^ords  were  separated  by  spaces,  and  some- 
times by  dots  and  other  marks.  The  marks  now  employed 
have  come  to  be  used  with  so  much  definiteness  that  they 
are  a  great  help  in  enabling  the  writer  to  express  his  mean- 
ing exactly.  The  way  to  accomplish  this  result  is  (i)  to 
express  one  thought  at  a  time  ;  (2)  to  keep  by  themselves 
words  which  express  that  thought;  and  (3)  to  let  the  marks 
help  indicate  the  relation  of  the  words. 

11.  Spelling.  Plve  hundred  years  ago  readers  and  writers 
were  not  particular  about  spelling.  Chaucer  spelled  the 
same  word  in  several  ways  ;  but  in  our  time  it  is  very  im- 
portant to  spell  with  accuracy.  If  you  have  any  doubt  what- 
ever about  the  spelling  of  a  word,  consult  a  dictionary. 

Syllabication.  Never  divide  a  word  at  the  end  of  a  line 
unless  you  can  divide  it  by  syllables.  Use  a  hyphen  to  mark 
the  division,  and  put  the  hyphen  at  the  end  of  the  line. 

12.  The  Paragraph.  We  can  often  help  the  reader  catch 
our  meaning  quickly  by  arranging  our  sentences  in  groups. 
A  group  of  sentences  winch  relate  to  a  single  division  of  tJie 


2  2  THE   MANUSCRIPT 

subject  is  called  a  pamgrapJi.  Every  paragraph  should  be 
indented  ;  that  is,  the  first  word  should  be  written  about  an 
inch  farther  to  the  right  than  the  first  word  of  any  other 
line  in  the  paragraph. 

Neatness  should  be  conspicuous  in  all  our  work.  The 
margin  is  a  matter  of  form,  and  the  heading  is  largely  so. 
It  is  obvious,  however,  that  the  paragrapJi  and  the  sentence 
are  much  more  than  matters  of  form  relating  to  the  appear- 
ance of  the  manuscript.  If  one  is  to  know  how  much  to 
include  in  a  paragraph  and  in  a  sentence,  he  must  be  famil- 
iar with  the  construction  of  paragraphs  and  sentences.  This 
familiarity  we  shall  at  once  begin  to  acquire. 

13.  The  Two  Copies  of  the  Manuscript.  Although  it  is 
important  to  accjuire  facility  in  writing  good  papers  without 
copying  them,  for  some  time  you  will  do  well  to  make  two 
copies  of  the  papers  you  write  outside  the  class  room. 

In  preparing  the  first  copy  there  are  two  steps  : 

1.  Write  rapidly. 

2.  Revise  slowly. 

a.  See  that  every  paragraph  is  indented. 

b.  See  that  every  sentence  hasasubject  and  a  predicate. 

c.  See  that  every  sentence  is  punctuated  (i)  at  the 

end  ;   (2)  throughout. 

d.  See  that  every  word  is  correctly  spelled. 

In  making  the  second  copy  there  are  three  things  to 
remember:  (i)  neatness;  (2)  margin;  (3)  heading. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  a  brief  account  of  something  that  you  saw 
happen.  Follow  closely  the  above  directions  in  preparing 
the  two  copies  of  the  manuscript. 


CRITICISM  23 

2.  (For  the  class  room.)  Exchange  papers^  and,  as  ex- 
aminer of  the  paper  of  one  of  your  classmates,  criticise  the 
work  under  the  following  heads:  (i)  neatness,  (2)  margin, 
(3)  heading  (including  title),  (4)  indenting  of  paragraphs,  (5) 
sentence  structure,  (6)  punctuation,  (7)  spelling.  Write  your 
report  and  see  that  each  of  your  sentences  has  a  subject 
and  a  predicate.    For  example  : 

Criticism  of  "  A  Runaway,"  by  A.  F.  Brown 

1.  The  page  is  neat  and  attractive. 

2.  The  margin  is  straight  and  of  the  right  width. 

3.  The  heading  Is  complete  and  the  title  appropriate.  No  space  is 
left  between  the  title  and  the  opening  sentence. 

4.  Three  paragraphs  are  indented,  but  I  see  no  reason  why  there 
should  be  more  than  one  paragraph. 

5.  The  fourth  sentence  has  no  predicate. 

6.  There  is  no  punctuation  mark  at  the  end  of  the  first  sentence. 

7.  The  words  "  Tuesday  "  and  "  village  "  are  misspelled. 

Mary  A.  Taft,  Examiner. 

3.  Taking  advantage  of  all  the  suggestions  given  by  your 
classmate,  revise  your  paper.    If  you  think  best,  rewrite  it. 

4.  Write  about  another  incident  which  you  have  seen.  Fol- 
low the  directions  given  for  preparing  the  preceding  paper. 

5.  (For  the  class  room.)  Exchange  papers  and  act  as 
examiner  as  before. 

6.  Revise  your  paper,  and  if  there  is  sufficient  reason, 
rewrite  it ;  that  is  to  say,  if,  in  the  judgment  of  either 
teacher  or  pupil,  interlinear  corrections  of  the  original  paper 
are  not  sufficient. 

1  By  examining  each  other's  papers  —  one  day  passing  them  forward,  another 
day  passing  them  backward,  then  to  the  left,  to  the  right,  to  the  second  pupil  in 
front,  etc.  —  the  memliers  of  the  class  can  be  of  great  service  in  pointing  out  certain 
improvements  to  each  other. 


24  THE  MANUSCRIPT 

7.  Write  a  short  paper  on  any  subject  based  on  expe- 
rience. Ih^IIow  the  directions  given  above,  and  in  revising 
take  special  pains  to  see  that  each  sentence  has  a  subject 
and  a  predicate. 

8.  (For  the  class  room.)  Exchange  papers  and,  as  exam- 
iner, write  your  criticisms  in  the  margin  and  at  the  end  of 
the  paper.  For  example,  against  poor  penmanship  write 
"Pen.";  against  an  incomplete  sentence,  "S";  against  a 
line  containing  a  misspelled  word,  "  Sp."  Note  the  list  of 
abbreviations  given  below,  and  in  particular,  the.  suggestion 
about  using  section  numbers. 

When  you  find  a  "•[|"in  one  of  your  margins,  do  not 
pass  it  by  until  you  understand  why  it  is  there ;  if  a  "G  " 
confronts  you,  be  sure  that  you  see  just  what  is  wrong 
before  you  try  to  right  it ;  and  should  a  "  K  "  appear,  work 
away  until  the  phrase  is  natural  and  smooth.  It  is  most 
encouraging  to  know  that  great  writers  have  had  to  do 
their  work  over  and  over  again  before  it  was  satisfactory. 
We  find  Stevenson  saying,  "  Yesterday  I  was  a  living  half 
hour  upon  a  single  clause  and  have  a  gallery  of  variants 
that  would  surprise  you  ";  and  in  March,  1891,  he  wrote: 
"  I  had  breakfasted  and  read  (with  indescribable  sinkings) 
the  whole  of  yesterday's  work  before  the  sun  had  risen. 
Then  I  sat  and  thought,  and  sat  and  better  thought.  It  was 
not  good  enough,  nor  good ;  it  was  as  slack  as  journalism, 
but  not  so  inspired  ;  it  was  excellent  stuff  misused,  and  the 
defects  stood  gross  on  it  like  humps  upon  a  camel."  Happy 
is  he  who  can  see  his  defects  ;  happier  he  who,  with  stout 
heart  and  infinite  patience,  toils  incessantly  to  overcome 
them. 


KEY  TO   CRITICISMS  25 

Key  to  Examiner's  Criticisms 

A.  Ambiguous. 

C.  Wants  connection  with  subject  or  context  (coherence). 

Cap.  Use  a  capital. 

I.e.  Use  a  small  letter  (lower  case). 

8  Omit. 

F.  Force.    Make  the  sentence  more  forcible. 

G.  Grammar  faulty. 

K.       Awkward,  clumsy,  stiff. 

M.       Margin. 

P.        Punctuation. 

Pen.    Penmanship. 

Poss.  Possessive  case. 

IT         Paragraph. 

"  "      Quotation  marks. 

R.        Repetition  of  word  or  thought. 

Sp.      Spelling. 

S.        Sentence. 

T.       Tense. 

U.        Wants  unity. 

V.       Vague. 

W.       Word. 

X.       Fault  obvious. 

?  Error?    Meaning.'' 

A       Something  should  be  inserted. 

I,  2,  3,  etc.  Rearrange  words,  clauses,  or  sentences  in  the 
order  indicated  by  the  numbers. 

[  ]  Omit  the  passage  within  brackets. 

I    Means  that  the   criticism  refers  to  as  many  lines  of  the 
writing  as  this  mark  stands  against. 

One  of  the  foregoing  signs  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  com- 
position indicates  that  the  fault  is  a  prevailing  one. 

The  heavy-faced  section  numbers  in  this  book  may  be  used  to 
call  the  pupil's  attention  to  the  discussion  of  a  particular  fault. 
Thus,  9  would  refer  him  to  The  Heading,  page  19. 


26  THE   MANUSCRIPT 

Directions  tor  Rkvising  and  Ri'.wkiting 

Every  composition  is  to  be  revised  carefully  and  returned  to 
the  teacher.  If  there  is  need  of  rewriting,  return  the  revised 
copy  with  a  rewritten  copy  ;  but  always  show  by  corrections  made 
on  the  original  paper  that  you  understand  the  criticisms.  Never 
erase  any  of  these  eritieisms. 

There  may  not  be  room  to  recast  whole  sentences  on  the  origi- 
nal copy,  but  it  is  important  to  make  such  corrections  there  as 
si)ace  allows.  In  a  matter  like  spelling,  for  example,  if  the  right 
form  is  written  above  the  wrong  form,  the  teacher  can  see  at  a 
glance  that  the  correction  has  been  made ;  whereas  it  would  take 
much  longer  to  find  the  corrected  word  in  the  rewritten  copy. 


CHAPTER   IV 
THE  PARAGRAPH  AS  A  UNIT 

14.  Independent  Paragraphs.  We  have  thought  of  the 
jiaragraph  as  a  group  of  sentences  that  refer  to  one  topic, 
or  to  one  division  of  the  subject.  It  often  happens  that  a 
short  composition  on  a  Hmited  subject  forms  a  single  para- 
graph, and  it  will  be  well  to  write  several  independent  para- 
graphs. Practice  with  them  will  aid  us  in  managing  the 
paragraphs  in  longer  papers,  and  it  should  correct  once  for 
all  the  prevailing  tendency  among  young  writers  to  indent 
every  second  or  third  sentence. 

15.  Length  of  the  Paragraph.  A  paragraph  of  a  hundred 
words  is  short;  one  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  is  not  very 
long.  If  you  discover  more  than  two  paragraphs  on  a  page 
of  your  manuscript,  ask  yourself  whether  you  can  give  a 
good  reason  for  the  division, 

16.  Unity.  It  is  not  enough  that  all  the  sentences  in 
the  paragraph  shall  refer  to  a  single  topic  ;  these  sentences 
must  present  a  central  thought.  For  example,  the  topic 
of  the  following  paragraph  is  the  voyage  from  America  to 
Europe.  The  sentences  composing  the  paragraph  might  all 
have  a  bearing  on  that  topic  and  yet  the  paragraph  might 
by  no  means  be  a  unit.  One  sentence  might  speak  of  the 
storms,  another  of  the  boat,  another  of  the  passengers, 
another  of  the  crew,  etc.,  with  a  most  confusing  result. 
lUit  Irving's  paragraph  presents  one  view  of  the  subject. 
We  are  tcjld  that  tJic  ijiactivity  of  tfic  voyage  is  an  excellent 

27 


28  THE  PARAGRAPH  AS  A  UNIT 

preparation  for  tJic  bitstlc  of  another  world,  and  each  sen- 
tence contributes  something"  toward  this  main  thought. 

To  an  American  visiting  Europe,  the  long  voyage  he  has  to 
make  is  an  excellent  preparative.  The  temporary  absence  of 
worldly  scenes  and  employments  produces  a  state  of  mind  pecul- 
iarly fitted  to  receive  new  and  vivid  impressions.  The  vast  space 
of  waters  that  separates  the  hemispheres  is  like  a  blank  page  in 
existence.  There  is  no  gradual  transition,  by  which,  as  in  Europe, 
the  features  and  population  of  one  country  blend  almost  imper- 
ceptibly with  those  of  another.  From  the  moment  you  lose  sight 
of  the  land  you  have  left,  all  is  vacancy  until  you  step  on  the  oppo- 
site shore,  and  are  launched  at  once  into  the  bustle  and  novelties 
of  another  world.  —  "The  Voyage,"  in  "The  Sketch-Book." 

17.  The  Plan  of  the  Paragraph.  In  order  that  we  may 
include  everything  that  belongs  in  a  paragraph — and  nothing 
else  —  it  is  wise  to  have  in  mind,  if  not  on  paper,  the  plan 
of  the  details.  In  a  straightforward  account  of  a  single 
happening  this  is  usually  a  simple  matter.  When,  however, 
we  hav£  a  considerable  choice  of  details,  the  making  of  the 
plan  needs  more  attention. 

The  plan  of  "A  Short  Cut,"  which  follows,  is : 

1.  The  leader's  proposal. 

2.  The  start. 

3.  The  leader's  landing. 

4.  The  landing  of  the  others. 

A  Short  Cut 

One  day  while  I  was  watching  a  fire  from  the  top  of  a  high 
bank,  a  little  fellow  near  me  proposed  to  several  of  his  com- 
panions that  they  take  a  short  cut  to  the  fire  by  running  down 
the  bank.  They  all  seemed  willing  and  they  started  with  a  long 
jump.    The  moment  the  leader  landed  in  the  soft  sand  he  tripped 


THE  PLAN   OF  THE   PARAGRAPH  29 

and  fell  headlong.  The  others,  who  were  close  behind  him,  re- 
peated the  performance  with  the  same  result.  It  was  amusing  to 
see  them  roll  over  one  another  in  the  dirt  and  stones  all  the 
way  down,  but  somehow  they  landed  on  their  feet  and  ran  to 
the  fire. 

The  plan  of  "A  Young  Protector,"  which  follows,  is  : 

1.  The  father  and  the  child. 

2.  The  separation. 

3.  The  child's  concern. 

4.  The  reunion. 

A  Young  Protector 

One  day  while  I  was  riding  in  an  electric  car  a  man  got  in 
with  a  little  child.  He  placed  him  on  the  seat  opposite  me  and 
went  out  on  the  platform.  The  child  sat  there  a  few  minutes 
with  atroubled  look  on  his  face,  and  then  called  out,  "Papa  !" 
Looking  out  of  the  window,  he  noticed  the  father  standing  there 
and  seemed  satisfied  for  a  while.  Soon,  however,  a  new  thought 
came  into  his  mind,  and,  looking  anxiously  toward  his  father,  he 
said,  "Papa,  i^'ou  falling?"  The  father  shook  his  head.  But 
the  little  one  was  not  quite  contented  and  called  out  again, 
"Ain't  'ou,  ain't  'ou  falhng,  papa?  "  Again  the  father  shook  his 
head.  By  this  time  everybody  in  the  car  was  interested.  Soon 
reaching  his  destination,  the  father  lifted  the  child  out,  and  the 
little  fellow,  happy  now,  trudged  down  the  street  gfasping  his 
father's  hand. 

EXERCISE 

1.  In  studying  the  two  following  paragraphs,  answer 
these  questions  : 

1.  What  is  the  writer's  one  purpose? 

2.  Show  whether  the  choice  of  details  serves  the  purpose. 

3.  What  is  his  plan  ? 

4.  Which  paragraph  is  the  better  example  of  unity? 


30  THE   PARAGRAPH   AS  A  UNIT 

An  Old  Friend 

I  saw  an  old  friend  this  morning  —  that  is,  if  a  locomotive  may 
be  called  an  old  friend.  I  first  saw  the  locomotive  last  spring  at 
the  Braintree  freight  yards.  There  were  two  of  these  engines, 
Nos.  431  and  432,  belonging  to  a  class  called  Moguls.  They 
had  just  been  completed  at  Schenectady,  New  York,  and  at  that 
time  one  of  them  brought  a  long  string  of  freight  cars  from 
Taunton  to  South  Braintree  every  day.  As  the  largest  engines 
on  the  division,  they  attracted  considerable  attention.  They 
were  very  high  and  had  to  have  short  headlights  and  smoke- 
stacks, which  gave  them  a  squatty,  unnatural  appearance.  Each 
had  six-foot  driving  wheels,  three  on  a  side.  These,  together 
Avith  their  enormous  boilers,  enabled  them  to  draw  a  large  num- 
ber of  cars.  When  necessary  they  could  go  about  sixty  miles  an 
hour'.  I  was  much  interested  in  them,  but  they  were  taken  off  the 
division  after  a  few  weeks'  service.  To-day  as  I  saw  this  large 
engine  approaching  I  was  quite  sure  I  had  seen  it  before,  and  as 
it  drew  nearer  my  conviction  proved  correct,  for  I  soon  made  out 
the  number,  431,  on  the  front  of  the  boiler. 

Baby's  First  Shoes 

They  ^  were  lovely,  bright,  red  shoes,  — just  the  kind  to  please 
a  baby.  They  stood  there  on  the  floor  quietly  waiting  to  be 
claimed.  Baby  spied  the  two  bits  of  red  and  at  once  decided  to 
go  and  feel.  He  edged  quickly  along  the  floor  and  fearlessly 
grasped  one  bit  of  red.  It  didn't  scratch  like  "  Kitty."  He 
pinched  it ;  it  didn't  squeal  like  his  rubber  doll.  He  shook  it ; 
it  didn't  jingle  like  his  bells.  Evidently  there  must  be  some 
further  mystery  about  this  last  prize.  He  stuck  one  red  tip  into 
his  mouth,  but  took  it  out  very  quickly,  making  a  wry  face.  He 
stuck  in  the  other,  too,  but  it  tasted  just  exactly  as  bad.  He 
threw  them  down  in  disgust,  and  babbled  some  earnest  babyland 
prattle  to  them.     Then  mamma  came  to  the  assistance  of  the 

1  Note  that  "  they  "  does  not  refer  to  the  title,  although  it  may  seem  to. 


THE  PLAN   OF  THE   PARAGRAPH  3 1 

tiny  puzzler.  She  drew  baby's  two  mysteries  on  over  his  ten  little 
toes./  Baby  sat  very  quiet  and  looked  very  thoughtfully  at  his 
newly  shod  feet.  They  had  never  been  housed  before.  Baby 
rather  doubtfully  wriggled  his  toes  in  their  pens.  But,  oh,  how 
bewitching  that  red  was  !  He  leaned  over,  caught  hold  of  one 
little  foot  with  each  little  hand,  rolled  over  on  his  back,  and 
kicked  those  red  shoes  back  and  forth,  up  and  down,  "  every- 
which-way,"  watching  the  flashes  of  red  come  and  go,  and  cooing 
in  a  baby's  own  happy  way.  When  mamma  came  later  to  find 
him,  baby  was  cuddled  down  in  a  little  heap  fast  asleep,  with  one 
little  red  shoe  clasped  tightly  in  each  chubby  hand. 

EXERCISES 

1.  (i)  Make  'a  list  of  the  reasons  why  you  like  your 
school  life.  (2)  Write  a  paragraph  based  on  this  list  of 
reasons. 

2.  Exchange  papers  and,  as  examiner,  answer  these  ques- 
tions in  writing : 

1.  Is  the  form  satisfactory  ?  (Consider  neatness,  margin,  head- 
ing, indentation.) 

2.  Is  the  paragraph  interesting? 

3.  Is  it  adequate? 

4.  What  is  the  plan  of  it? 

3.  In  a  similar  way  write  another  paragraph,  say  on  one 
of  the  subjects  chosen  in  Exercise  i,  page  16. 

4.  Exchange  papers  and  examine  as  in  Exercise  2. 

5.  Write  another  paragraph,  say  on  one  of  the  subjects 
chosen  in  Exercise  2,  page  16. 

6.  Write  a  paragraph  on  one  of  these  subjects  : 

1.  The  reasons  why  I  came  to  this  school. 

2.  The  reasons  why  a  boy  likes  to  smoke. 

3.  The  reasons  why  a  boy's  father  does  not  like  to  have  him 
smoke. 


32  THE  fara(;rapii  as  a  unit 

4.  The  reasons  why  some  parents  are  particular  to  have  their 
sons  and  daughters  kee[)  early  hours. 

5.  The  reasons  why  1  dislike  my  school  life. 

18.  Connected  Paragraphs.  We  write  a  good  many  themes 
and  letters  in  which  we  must  make  several  paragraphs.  In 
the  following  selection  the  first  paragraph  describes  a  forest 
which  was  reached  after  an  hour's  climbing,  and  the  second 
a  pond,  so  far  beyond  that  it  was  not  discovered  till  "  about 
noon."  These  two  topics  are  separated  both  by  space  and 
by  time. 

In  the  Mountains 

Our  journey  commenced  in  a  steep  and  rugged  ascent,  which 
brought  us,  after  an  hour's  heavy  climbing,  to  an  elevated  region 
of  pine  forest,  years  before  ravished  by  lumbermen,  and  pre- 
senting all  manner  of  obstacles  to  our  awkward  and  encumbered 
pedestrianism.  The  Avoods  were  largely  pine,  though  yellow 
birch,  beech,  and  maple  were  common.  The  satisfaction  of  hav- 
ing a  gun,  should  any  game  show  itself,  was  the  chief  compensa- 
tion to  those  of  us  who  were  thus  burdened.  A  partridge  would 
occasionally  whir  up  before  us,  or  a  red  squirrel  snicker  and 
hasten  to  his  den ;  else,  the  woods  appeared  quite  tenantless. 
The  most  noted  object  was  a  mammoth  pine,  apparently  the  last 
of  a  great  race,  which  presided  over  a  cluster  of  yellow  birches, 
on  the  side  of  the  mountain. 

About  noon  we  came  out  upon  a  long,  shallow  sheet  of  water 
which  the  guide  called  Bloody-Moose  Pond,  from  the  tradition 
that  a  moose  had  been  slaughtered  there  many  years  before. 
Looking  out  over  the  silent  and  lonely  scene,  his  eye  was  the 
first  to  detect  an  object  apparently  feeding  upon  lily  pads,  which 
our  willing  fancies  readily  shaped  into  a  deer.  As  we  were  eagerly 
waiting  some  movement  to  confirm  this  impression,  it  lifted  up 
its  head,  and  lo  !  a  great  blue  heron.  Seeing  us  approach,  it 
spread  its  long  wings  and  flew  solemnly  across  to  a  dead  tree  on 
the  other  side  of  the  lake,  enhancing,  rather  than  relieving,  the 


CONNECTED   PARAGRAPHS  33 

loneliness  and  desolation  that  brooded  over  the  scene.  —  John 
BuKKouGHS,  "Adirondac"  in  "Wake  Robin." 

If  you  are  asked  to  give  a  brief  account  of  the  first 
appearance  of  Gurth  and  Wamba  in  "  Ivanhoe,"  you  will 
probably  find  these  three  topics  useful : 

1.  The  setting. 

2.  The  dress. 

3.  The  conversation. 

If  familiar  with  the  subject,  you  will  not  wish  to  crowd  all 
you  ha\-e  to  say  into  a  single  paragraph,  but  will  prefer  to 
give  a  separate  paragraph  to  each  topic.  In  this  case  each 
of  the  three  gfoups  of  details  will  mark  ojie  stage  of  the 
narrative.  This  is  true  of  "  In  the  Mountains  "  ;  and  in 
both  these  instances,  as  in  others  we  have  seen,  —  "A  Short 
Cut,"  "A  Young  Protector,"  "An  Old  Friend,"  "Baby's 
First  Shoes,"  —  each  paragraph  contains  the  details  wJiich 
illustrate  one  point. 

EXERCISES 

1.  After  using  your  "  Ivanhoe  "  ^  in  making  the  prepara- 
tions just  indicated,  write  in  class,  without  reference  to  book 
or  papers,  on  The  First  Appearance  of  Gurth  and  Wamba. 

2.  Write  paragraph  topics  for  themes  on  the  following 
subjects :  The  Tournament,  Locksley's  Shooting  before 
Prince  John,  The  Knight  and  the  Friar,  Cedric  and  Athel- 
stane  at  John's  Banquet,  The  Storming  of  the  Castle,  The 
Trial  of  Rebecca  at  Templestowe. 

3.  Write  in  class,  without  reference  to  book  or  paper, 
on  one  of  the  preceding  subjects. 

1  If  the  class  does  not  ha]5pen  to  be  reading  this  book,  the  teacher  will  ])robably 
prefer  to  substitute  other  subjects  in  tliis  exercise  and  in  some  of  tlie  exercises  that 
follow. 


34  THE  PARAGRAPH   AS  A   UNIT 

4.  Explain  the  construction  of  something  you  have  made, 
—  of  pajier,  cloth,  pasteboard,  wood,  iron,  or  steel,  —  or  the 
preparation  of  some  dish  from  such  materials  as  sugar,  milk, 
and  eggs.  Before  beginning  to  write,  consider  the  steps  in- 
volved in  the  process,  and  in  writing  give  each  step  the 
consideration  it  deserves. 

19.  The  Topic  Sentence.  In  the  illustration  under  sec- 
tion 1 6,  the  words  in  italics  practically  give  in  a  sentence 
the  main  thought  of  the  paragraph.  Such  a  sentence  .is 
often  called  a  topic  sentence.  It  always  helps  a  writer  to 
secure  unity  if  he  has  a  topic  sentence  before  him  as  he 
writes  the  paragraph.  The  topic  sentence  frequently  ap- 
pears in  the  paragraph  —  sometimes  at  the  beginning,  some- 
times near  the  middle,  sometimes  at  the  end. 


EXERCISES 

1.  Can  you  find  topic  sentences  in  the  following  para- 
graphs ?  If  not,  make  lists  of  the  subjects  discussed,  and 
in  a  carefully  worded  sentence  write  the  main  thought 
of  each  paragraph. 

You  are,  I  think,  too  fond  of  reading  as  it  is.  As  one  means 
of  avoiding  excess  in  this  way,  I  would  wish  you  to  make  it  a 
rule  never  to  read  at  meal-times,  nor  in  company  when  there  is 
any  (even  the  most  trivial)  conversation  going  on,  nor  even  to  let 
your  eagerness  to  learn  encroach  upon  your  play-hours.  Books 
are  but  one  inlet  of  knowledge  ;  and  the  pores  of  the  mind,  like 
those  of  the  body,  should  be  left  open  to  all  impressions.  I 
applied  too  close  to  my  studies,  soon  after  I  was  of  your  age, 
and  hurt  myself  irreparably  by  it.  AMiatever  may  be  the  value 
of  learning,  healtli  and  good  spirits  are  of  more. 


THE  TOPIC   SENTENCE  35 

As  to  the  books  you  will  have  to  read  by  choice  or  for  amuse- 
ment, the  best  are  the  commonest.  The  names  of  many  of  them 
are  already  familiar  to  you.  Read  them  as  you  grow  up  with  all 
the  satisfaction  in  your  power,  and  make  much  of  them.  It  is 
perhaps  the  greatest  pleasure  you  will  have  in  life,  the  one  you 
will  think  of  longest,  and  repent  of  least.  If  my  life  had  been 
more  full  of  calamity  than  it  has  been  (much  more  than  I  hope 
yours  will  be)  I  would  live  it  over  again,  my  poor  little  boy,  to 
have  read  the  books  I  did  in  my  youth.  —  Hazlitt,  "  On  the 
Conduct  of  Life." 

2.  Write  a  paragraph  explaining  why is  your  favor- 
ite outdoor  game.  First  prepare  a  topic  sentence  and  keep 
it  before  you  as-  you  write. 

3.  With  the  aid  of  a  topic  sentence  write  a  paragraph  on 
a  subject  of  your  own  choosing.  If  you  wish,  turn  to  the 
list  prepared  in  Exercise  4,  page  16. 

4.  Exchange  papers  and  write  in  a  single  sentence  what 
you  consider  the  main  thought  of  your  classmate's  paragraph. 

5.  Write  a  paragraph  beginning  with  a  sentence  in  which 
you  name  several  traits  that  you  like  in  one  of  your  friends. 
Use  as  many  paragraphs  as  the  subject  demands. 


CHAl'TEK  V 

THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  PUNCTUATION 

Punctuation  is  a  matter  of  courtesy  ;  if  we  arc  polite, 
we  shall  take  care  that  the  reader  has  all  the  aid  that 
the  most  careful  punctuation  can  give.  It  is  also  a  matter 
of  great  practical  value  ;  failure  to  insert  a  comma  or  a 
semicolon  in  a  will  may  make  a  difference  of  thousands  of 
dollars  to  an  heir.  Defective  punctuation  may  make  a  law 
of  no  effect. 

THE  SENTENCE 

The  first  two  facts  to  fix  in  mind  about  the  sentence 
are  these  : 

1.  A  sentence  is  the  expression  in  words  of  a  complete 
thought  —  whether  a  statement,  command,  question,  or 
exclamation. 

2.  Every  sentence  should  have  a  sul^jcct  and  a  predicate. 

20.  Three  Forms  of  Sentences.  We  should  also  keep  in 
mind  what  we  learned  from  the  grammars  about  the  three 
forms  of  sentences  : 

1.  A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  subject  and  one 

predicate. 

Tlie  bo}^  caught  the  liah. 

A  distinguished  visitor  is  in  our  country. 

2.  A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  main 
clauses.     (It  will  be  remembered  that  a  clause  is  a  group  of 

^6 


THREE  FORMS  OF  SENTENCES        37 

words  which  contains  a  subject  and  a  predicate.      A  main, 
or  independent,  clause  is  defined  on  pages  126-127.) 

Mary  came  early,  but  she  did  not  stay  long. 
A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father,  but  a  foolish  son  is  the  heavi- 
ness of  his  mother. 

Note  i.  The  subject  of  a  .sentence  may  be  compound. 

John  and  Mary  came  early. 
Note  2.  The  predicate  may  be  compound. 

The  boy  has  caught  the  ball  and  is  throiuing  it. 
Note  3.   Both  subject  and  predicate  may  be  compound. 

Harvard  and  Yale  are  rivals,  but  have  a  wholesome  respect 
for  each  other. 

3 .  A  complex  sentence  consists  of  a  main  clause  and  one 
or  more  subordinate  clauses.^ 

If  you  go,  I  shall  go. 

Since  he  is  here,  you  may  ask  him. 

He  came  because  he  wished  to  see  you. 

Note  i.  Parts  of  a  compound  sentence  may  be  complex. 

He  is  here,  but  he  is  so  busy  that  he  cannot  see  you.  (One 
part  simple.) 

You  cannot  have  what  you  like,  but  you  can  like  what  jou 
have.    (Both  parts  complex.) 

Note  2.  The  subordinate  clause  of  a  complex  .sentence  may  be 
compound. 

His  employers  recommend  him  because  tlicy  kncnu  his  worth 
and  because  they  will  be  g/ad  io  see  hin\  promoted. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Find  in  this  book  three  complex  sentences. 

2.  Write  three  complex  sentences.^ 

1  For  a  more  detailed  study  of  the  parts  of  sentences  see  Chapter  X. 

2  Exercise  2  and  many  that  follow  ate  good  blackboard  exercises. 


38        THE   SENTKNCK  AND   ITS  PUNCTUATION 

3.  Write  (i)  a  compound  sentence  in  which  one  part 
is  complex  ;  {2)  a  compound  sentence  in  which  two  parts  are 
comjilex  ;  (3)  a  complex  sentence  in  which  the  subordinate 
clause  is  com})Ound. 

MARKS  AT  THE  END  OF  THE  SENTENCE 

As  soon  as  we  express  a  complete  thought,  we  are  to  let 
the  reader  know  that  he  has  reached  the  end  of  the  sen- 
tence. In  talking  we  show  by  a  pause  when  we  come  to 
the  end  of  a  thought,  but  in  writing  we  are  liable  to  leave 
one  thought  unfinished  in  our  haste  to  say  something  else. 
In  our  writing",  then,  we  must  take  pains  to  set  off  by  them- 
selves the  words  which  compose  each  sentence.  The  first 
word  of  every  sentence  should  begin  with  a  capital,  and  the 
sentence  should  end  with  the  proper  punctuation  mark. 
Evcrj'  complete  sentence  sJionld  end  ivith  a  period,  an  inter- 
rogation point,  or  an  exclamation  point. 

21.  The  Period.  A  period  should  stand  at  the  end  of 
every  declarative  or  imperative  sentence.  If,  however,  a 
declarative  or  imperative  sentence  is  exclamatory,  an  excla- 
mation point  may  be  used  instead  of  a  period. 

Note.  A  period  should  follow  every  abbreviation ;  as,  Cal.,  Me., 
Mr.,  Rev.,  Oct. 

EXERCISES 

1.  In  copying  the  following  selections,  complete  the  punc- 
tuation by  inserting  periods  wherever  they  belong. 

1 .  To-clay  I  went  to  the  circus  the  tents  were  all  up,  and  in  one 
of  them  I  saw  some  elephants  the  cooks  were  getting  supper  ready. 

2.  My  cousin  sent  me  a  letter  from  the  Phih'ppines,  where  he 
is  with  his  company  he  told  me  that  on  his  way  to  the  islands 


THE   PERIOD  39 

they  encountered  a  hea\y  storm  which  carried  them  nearly  to 
Japan  the  ship  was  wrecked,  and  they  lost  all  their  food,  clothing, 
and  personal  property. 

3.  Years  afterwards,  the  knowledge  gained  stood  me  in  good 
stead  in  clearing  up  another  mystery  it  was  in  a  lumber  camp  — 
always  a  superstitious  place  —  in  the  heart  of  a  Canada  forest  I 
had  followed  a  wandering  herd  of  caribou  too  far  one  day,  and  late 
in  the  afternoon  found  myself  alone  at  a  river,  some  twenty  miles 
from  my  camp,  on  the  edge  of  the  barren  grounds  somewhere 
above  me  I  knew  that  a  crew  of  lumbermen  were  at  work ;  so  I 
headed  up  river  to  find  their  camp,  if  possible,  and  avoid  sleep- 
ing out  in  the  snow  and  bitter  cold  it  was  long  after  dark,  and 
the  moon  was  flooding  forest  and  river  with  a  wonderful  light, 
when  I  at  last  caught  sight  of  the  camp  the  click  of  my  snow- 
shoes  brought  a  dozen  big  men  to  the  door  at  that  moment  I  felt, 
rather  than  saw,  that  they  seemed  troubled  and  alarmed  at  seeing 
me  alone ;  but  I  was  too  tired  to  notice,  and  no  words  save  those 
of  welcome  were  spoken  until  I  had  eaten  heartily  then,  as  I 
started  out  for  another  look  at  the  wild  beauty  of  the  place  under 
the  moonlight,  a  lumberman  followed  and  touched  me  on  the 
shoulder. 

2.  (i)  Write  about  something  you  saw  happen.  Do  your 
writing  as  rapidly  as  you  please.  (2)  Before  copying  your 
work,  revise  it  to  see  that  (a)  every  sentence  has  a  subject 
and  a  predicate,  and  that  (b)  every  sentence  begins  with  a 
capital,  and,  if  declarative,  ends  with  a  period. 

Note.  Since  some  young  writers  run  on  breathlessly  from  one  sen- 
tence to  another  without  thought  of  periods,  every  pupil  should  be 
sure  that  he  does  not  crowd  too  much  into  one  sentence.  It  is  well 
at  first  to  have  one's  sentences  .short  rather  than  long. 

3.  In  a  paragraph  of  a  hundred  words  tell  why  you 
like  or  do  not  like  the  literature  that  the  class  is  now 
reading. 


40        THE  SENTENCE  AND    ITS   PUNCTUATION 

22.  The    Interrogation    Point.     An    interrogation    point 

should  follow  every  direct  question. 

Did  you  recognize  me  ? 
You  could  not  see  ? 

Note.  An  interrogation  point  should  not  follow  an  indirect  ques- 
tion ;  for  example,  He  asked  who  was  ready  to  go. 


EXERCISES 

1.  Ask  a  favor  of  your  teacher  in  a  declarative  sentence. 

2.  Ask  the  same  favor  in  an  interrogative  sentence. 

3.  Turn  your  interrogative  sentence  into  an  indirect 
question. 

23.  The  Exclamation  Point,  i.  The  exclamation  point 
stands  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  to  strengthen  the  expres- 
sion of  strong  feeling. 

Let  not  a  traitor  live  ! 
God  pity  her ! 
Begone  ! 

2.  It  is  also  used  within  the  sentence.  It  follows  words, 
phrases,  and  clauses. 

What  nonsense  ! 

"  The  fool !  "  he  muttered. 

"  That  bullet  was  better  aimed  than  common  ! "  exclaimed 
Duncan,  involuntarily  shrinking  from  a  shot  which  struck  the 
rock  at  his  side  with  a  smart  rebound. 

EXERCISES 

1.  (i)  Write  a  paragraph  about  some  exciting  experience 
of  yours.  (2)  Before  copying  your  work,  see  that  every 
sentence  (a)  has  a  subject  and  a  predicate,  and  {h)  begins 
with  a  capital  and  ends  with  the  proper  punctuation  mark. 


THE   INTERROGATION   POINT  4 1 

(Remember  the   caution  not  to  crowd  too  much   into  one 
sentence.) 

2.  Exchange  papers  and,  as  critics,  consider  the  following 
questions  : 

1.  Does  every  sentence  end  where  it  should?  If  not,  put  a 
neat  S  in  the  margin. 

2.  Is  every  declarative  sentence  followed  by  a  period?  If  not, 
put  a  Fin  the  margin  unless  the  sentence  is  exclamatory. 

3.  Are  interrogative  or  exclamatory  sentences  followed  by  the 
proper  marks? 

If  you  question  the  use  of  any  mark  of  punctuation,  put  a  "  ?  " 
in  the  margin. 

3.  Revise  your  paper,  and  if  there  is  sufficient  reason, 
rewrite  it. 

MARKS    WITHIN    THE   SENTENCE 

We  are  not  only  to  keep  our  sentences  apart,  but  we  are 
also  to  make  use  of  whatever  marks  will  help  us  group  the 
words  within  a  sentence  so  that  they  will  be  most  readily 
understood.  1  Of  such  marks  the  most  important  are  the 
colon,  the  semicolon,  and  the  comma. 

We  shall  consider  first  the  colon  and  the  semicolon  be- 
cause they  separate  complete  clauses  which  are  too  closely 
connected  to  be  separated  by  a  period.  In  other  words,  the 
colon  and  the  semicolon  mark  main  divisions  of  a  sentence  ; 
the  comma  marks  lesser  divisions.  At  the  same  time  it 
will  be  convenient  to  study  all  three  side  by  side,  and  refer- 
ences from  one  to  the  other  may  be  more  readily  under- 
stood if  wc  remember  two  facts  : 

1  The  plan  of  marking  the  end  of  the  sentence  first  is  only  a  temporary  device. 
As  soon  as  we  can  trust  ourselves  to  mark  the  end  of  the  sentence,  we  should  form 
the  habit  of  inserting  these  other  marks  Tf/il/c  writing  the  sentence. 


42        THE  SENTENCE  AND   ITS   PUNCTUA'ilON 

1.  The  colon  sometimes  separates  clauses  which  are 
subdivided   by  semicolons. 

A  clause  is  either  indeijendent  or  dependent :  independent,  if 
it  forms  an  assertion  by  itself ;  dependent,  if  it  enters  into  some 
other  clause  with  the  value  of  a  part  of  speech. 

2.  The  semicolon  sometimes  separates  clauses  which  are 
subdivided  by  commas. 

So  if  a  man's  wit  be  wandering,  let  him  study  the  mathe- 
matics; for  in  demonstrations,  if  his  wit  be  called  away  never  so 
little,  he  must  begin  again. 

24.  The  Colon.  The  colon  not  only  separates  clauses 
which  are  subdivided  by  semicolons  but  also  introduces 
explanation  or  specification. 

1 .  It  introduces  a  second  clause  which  explains  the  first 

clause. 

One  thing  I  know :   she  is  a  lady. 

Frequently  the  second  clause  is  a  direct  quotation,  intro- 
duced formally. 

These  were  his  words  :  "  Say  what  you  may,  I  care  not  for 
the  consequences." 

2.  It  introduces  a  series  of  clauses  to  explain  the  first 
clause. 

The  battle  of  Actium  was  one  of  the  most  important  in  ancient 
history :  it  saved  European  civilization  from  undue  Oriental  influ- 
ence ;  it  ended  the  long  anarchy  which  followed  the  murder  of 
Cassar;  and  it  placed  the  destiny  of  the  empire  in  the  hands  of 
an  able  statesman. 

The  lesson  for  to-day  is  as  follows:  (i)  we  are  to  know  the 
uses  of  the  colon  ;  (2)  we  are  to  write  an  incident ;  (3)  we  are  to 
pick  out  and  copy  in  the  notebooks  twenty-four  of  the  best  lines 
from  "The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal." 

Note.  If  the  matter  that  follows  the  colon  opens  a  new  paragraph, 
or  begins  on  a  new  line,  a  dash  is  often  used  after  the  colon. 


THE  COLON  43 

3.  It  introduces  a  scries  of  words  to  explain  the  first  clause. 

Four  boys  deserve  particular  attention :  John,  James,  Charles, 
and  Henry. 

Note.   In  this  instance  the  \\\-\\.^r  specifics  the  boys  he  has  in  mind. 

4.  It  is  used  in  addressing  a  person  in  a  letter. 
a.   In  a  formal  way,  as  in  a  business  letter. 

Mr.  J.  W.  Brown, 

Boston,  Mass. 
Dear  Sir : 

/;.  In  a  less  formal  way,  as  in  a  letter  to  some  one  with 
whom  you  are  well  acquainted. 

Dear  Mr.  Brown : 

EXERCISES 

1.  Complete  the  punctuation  of  the  following  sentences 
and  show  why  the  marks  you  use  are  better  than  others 
which  might  be  used. 

1.  The  contrast  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Orientals  was  at 
its  height  at  Thermopyloe  on  the.  one  side  the  Persian  officers 
scourged  their  men  to  battle  on  the  other  the  Spartans  voluntarily 
faced  certain  death  in  obedience  to  law. 

2.  On  the  base  of  his  statue  his  countrymen  placed  this  epi- 
taph "  Had  your  strength  equaled  your  will  Demosthenes  the 
Macedonian  War  God  would  never  have  conquered  Greece." 

3.  They  had  one  virtue  under  the  whip  they  could  whirl  a 
sledge  over  the  snow  farther  and  faster  than  a  horse  could  trot 
in  a  day. 

4.  There  are  fines  imposed  for  tardiness  at  rehearsals  five 
dollars  for  a  period  not  exceeding  fifteen  minutes  ten  dollars  for 
a  longer  one  and  ten  dollars  for  absence  unless  there  is  sufficient 
excuse. 

2.  Call  your  teacher's  attention  to  one  of  the  best  sen- 
tences in  the  first  chapter  of  whatever  book  you  happen  to 


44        THE  SENTENCE  AND   ITS  PUNCTUATION 

be  reading.    Write  the  sentence  in  full,  and  introduce  it 
with  a  brief  statement  of  what  you  think  of  it. 

3.  Give  ill  a  single  sentence  the  reason  or  reasons  why 
you  came  to  this  school.  (In  this  exercise  and  the  next  the 
colon  may  be  convenient.) 

4.  Write  in  a  single  sentence  the  reasons  why  a  boy  should 
(or  should  not)  smoke  before  he  is  twenty-one  years  of  age. 

5.  Using  any  one  of  the  sentences  written  under  the  last 
three  exercises  as  the  first  sentence  of  a  paragraph,  write 
all  you  have  to  say  about  the  subject.  Copy  this  paper  in 
your  notebook  as  Theme  I.  Date  the  work  and  make  the 
penmanship  as  attractive  as  possible. ^ 

6.  Write  in  a  paragraph  of  not  more  than  a  hundred 
words  your  opinion  of  Walter  Scott  as  a  story-teller. 

Copy  this  paragraph  in  your  notebook  as  Theme  II. 

7.  Exchange  notebooks  in  order  to  examine  Themes  I 
and  II.  Criticise  (i)  form,  (2)  sentence  structure,  (3)  punc- 
tuation at  the  end  of  the  sentence,  (4)  the  use  of  the  colon. 
Keep  in  mind  this  question :  Has  the  colon  been  used  cor- 
rectly, or  might  it  be  used  to  advantage  ? 

8.  Revise  Themes  I  and  II  as  neatly  as  possible .^ 

25.  The  Semicolon,  i.  The  semicolon  separates  short 
clauses  which,  though  grammatically  independent,  are  so 
clo.sely  connected  in  meaning  that  they  naturally  form  a 
single  sentence. 

1  By  keeping  much  of  the  written  work  in  a  notebook,  the  pupil  can  attend  to 
certain  matters  at  once  and,  as  he  continues  his  study  of  composition,  can  come 
back  to  his  early  work  again  and  again  for  the  sake  of  making  one  improvement 
after  another.  The  word  "  composition  "  is  rather  long  to  apply  to  these  bits  of 
writing.  It  will  be  easier  to  use  the  shorter  word  "  theme,"  which  includes  all  kinds 
of  composition,  long  or  short. 

2  Hereafter  let  it  be  understood  that  every  composition  is  to  be  revised  after  it 
has  been  criticised.  No  re^frittjtg  is  to  be  done  unless  either  the  teacher  or  tlie  pupil 
thinks  best. 


THE   SEMICOLON  45 

Those  whose  backs  were  turned  wheeled  round ;  all  the  others 
raised  their  heads  ;  three  waiters  whirled  about  on  their  heels  like 
tops  ;  the  two  women  at  the  desk  gave  a  jump,  then  turned  com- 
pletely round,  like  automata  obedient  to  the  same  crank. 

2.  The  semicolon  separates  two  or  more  phrases  or 
clauses  which  depend  upon  another  clause. 

For  illustrations  see  section  24,  2. 

3.  The  semicolon  is  frequently  used  to  separate  the 
clauses  of  a  compound  sentence,  when  such  clauses  con- 
tain commas. 

At  high  tide,  and  at  high  tide  only,  the  sailing  is  delightful, 
as  there  are  a.  great  many  square  miles  of  sheltered  water  to 
cruise  upon ;  but  at  low  tide,  except  in  three  small  channels, 
there  is  no  sailing. 

EXERCISES 

1.  In  copying  the  following  sentences  insert  semicolons 
wherever  they  are  useful,  and  point  out  their  value. 

1.  He  was  courteous,  not  cringing,  to  superiors  affable,  not 
familiar,  to  equals  and  kind,  but  not  condescending  or  supercilious, 
to  inferiors. 

2.  In  taking  revenge,  a  man  is  but  even  with  his  enemy  but  in 
passing  it  over,  he  is  superior. 

3.  Some  said  that  Dolph  Heyliger  watched  in  the  haunted 
house  with  pistols  loaded  with  silver  bullets  others,  that  he  had  a 
long  talk  with  a  specter  without  a  head  others,  that  Doctor  Kip- 
perhauseia  and  the  sexton  had  been  hunted  down  the  Bowery  lane, 
and  quite  into  town,  by  a  legion  of  ghosts  of  their  customers. 

2.  Write  in  a  single  sentence  the  reasons  why  some  man 
or  woman  whom  you  know  is  justly  admired. 

3.  Using  the  sentence  as  the  first  sentence  of  a  paragraph, 
write  all  you  have  to  say  about  the  subject. 


40        THE   SENTENCE  AND   ITS   PUNCTUATION 

4.  Copy  this  paper  in  your  notebook  as  Theme  III. 

5.  Exchange  notebooks  and  examine  as  in  the  case  of 
Themes  I  and  II.    Consider  too  the  use  of  the  semicolon. 

26.  The  Comma.  The  comma  is  the  slightest  mark  of 
separation  that  may  be  put  between  words.  Its  common 
uses  are  as  follows : 

1.  The  comma  sets  off  expressions  obviously  parenthet- 
ical, including  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  used  in  apposition. 

1.  You  can  see,  I  think,  and  we  can  hear  perfectly. 

2.  I  caught  a  ghmpse  of  Edith,  his  sister. 

NoTK.  The  appositive  words,  "his  sister,"  have  no  close  gram- 
matical connection  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  If,  however,  we  say, 
"  His  sister  Edith  came  yesterday,"  the  connection  between  the  noun 
and  its  appositive  is  too  close  for  a  comma  to  come  between  them. 

2.  The  comma  sets  off  a  dependent  clause, unless  the  clause 
is  short  and  closely  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

1.  If  you  knew  him,  you  would  like  him. 

2.  The  pupil  who  studies  faithfully,  even  if  he  is  not  brilliant, 
is  likely  to  succeed. 

3.  I  will  come  when  you  say. 

This  rule  includes  a  relative  clause  which  is  explanatory, 
or  which  gives  an  additional  thought. 

The  older  brother,  whom  you  have  met,  was  here. 

But  a  relative  clause  which  is  restrictive,  which  limits  the 
meaning  of  the  antecedent,  is  too  closely  connected  with  it 
to  be  thus  separated. 

The  brother  whom  you  have  met  was  here  yesterday. 

3.  The  comma  sets  apart  words  used  in  direct  address. 

John,  your  mother  is  calling  you. 

Hearken,  Phteacian  captains  and  councilors,  and  let  me  tell 
you  what  the  heart  within  me  bids. 


THE   COMMA  47 

4.  The  comma  sets  apart  introductory  expressions  which 
are  not  closely  related  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

1.  Well,  you  may  be  right. 

2.  In  the  fir.st  place,  a  student  is  not  necessarily  a  scholar. 

3.  By  the  wa)'',  I  hear  that  William  has  been  promoted. 

4.  On  the  one  hand,  .  .  . ;  on  the  other,  .  .  . 

5.  The  comma  sets  apart  the  case  absolute. 

The  time  having  come,  he  called  the  meeting  to  order. 

6.  The  comma  sets  apart  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  in 
the  same  construction  in  a  scries. 

He  sells  dry  goods,  groceries,  hardware,  and  drugs. 

In  a  sentence 'like  this  last  example  it  is  sometimes  safe 
to  omit  the  comma  before  the  and,  but  such  an  omission 
might  cause  an  awkward  sentence  if  not  a  misunderstanding. 

Her  dresses  were  black,  white,  red,  and  blue. 

Note.  An  omission  of  the  last  comma  would  mean  that  the  same 
dress  was  partly  red  and  partly  blue. 

7.  The  comma  sets  apart  words  or  phrases  in  pairs. 

Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give  my  hand  and 
my  heart  to  this  vote. 

8.  The  comma  takes  the  place  of  omitted  words. 

(i)  It  frequently  takes  the  place  of  an  omitted  verb. 

1 .  The  first  train  was  an  hour  late  ;  the  second,  thirty  minutes ; 
and  the  third,  ten  minutes. 

2.  John  is  the  elder  son ;  Charles,  the  younger. 

(2)  The  comma  sets  apart  the  items  in  the  date  and  the 

address  of  a  letter. 

Exeter,  N.H., 

April  5,  1905. 
Mr.  J.  A.  Walker, 

Melrose,  Mass. 


48        THE  SENTENCE  AND   rrs  PUNCTUATION 

Note.  The  commas  take  the  place  of  in  the  state  of,  in  tJie  month 
of,  in  the  year.,  in  the  city  of,  in  the  state  of 

9.  The  comma  sets  apart  (i)  a  short  quotation  or  (2)  an 
expression  similar  to  a  quotation. 

1.  I  heard  him  say,  "A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath." 

2.  "  I  hope  you  will  come  soon,"  was  his  reply. 

3.  What  I  wish  to  know  is,  When  did  you  see  him  ? 

Note  i.  Of  course  the  comma  is  not  used  with  an  exclamation 
point  or  an  interrogation  point. 

"  Follow  me  !  "  he  shouted. 

"  Are  you  coming  ?  "  was  all  he  said. 

Note  2.   Commas  set  apart  words  that  come  between  the  parts  of 

a  quotation. 

"  Come  early,"  he  said,  "  or  not  at  all." 

EXERCISES 

1.  Account  for  every  punctuation  mark  in  the  follow- 
ing passage. 

A  college  stands  for  learning,  for  culture,  and  for  power ;  in 
partia/lai',  it  stands  for  the  recognition  of  an  aim  higher  than 
money  getting.  It  is  a  place  where  our  young  men  shall  see 
visions ;  where  even  the  idlest  and  lowest  man  of  all  must  catch 
glimpses  of  ideals  which,  if  he  could  see  them  steadily,  would 
transfigure  life.  The  Bachelor  of  Arts  is  seldom,  on  his  Com- 
mencement Day,  a  scholar  either  polished  or  profound ;  but  he 
may  be  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word  a  man. 

2.  In  copying  the  following  sentences,  insert  commas 
wherever  they  are  useful. 

1.  Wild  sorrel  has  an  agreeable  sour  shivery  flavor. 

2.  Do  you  remember  in  "The  Compleat  Angler"  a  remark 
which  Isaak  Walton  quotes  from  a  certain  "Doctor  Boteler " 
about  strawberries?  '^^ Doubtless^''  said  that  wise  old  man  "God 
could  have  made  a  better  bei'ry  but  doubtless  God  never  did." 


THE  DASH  49 

3.  I  made  a  little  journey  into  the  Doone  Country  once  just  to 
see  that  brook  and  to  fish  in  it.  The  stream  looked  smaller  and 
the  water-slide  less  terrible  than  they  seemed  in  the  book. 

4.  "Our  first  essay"  says  he  "was  along  a  mountain  brook 
among  the  highlands  of  the  Hudson.  .  .  .  Sometimes  it  would 
brawl  and  fret  along  a  ravine  in  the  matted  shade  of  a  forest  fill- 
ing it  with  murmurs ;  and  after  this  termagant  career  would  steal 
forth  into  open  day  with  the  most  placid  demure  face  imaginable  ; 
as  I  have  seen  some  pestilent  shrew  of  a  housewife  after  filling 
her  home  with  uproar  and  ill-humour." 

3.  Write  Theme  IV  on  any  subject  you  please.  If  you 
like,  you  may  tell  what  happened  while  you  were  waiting 
for  something  to' begin  —  say  a  game,  concert,  or  lecture. 

Revise  and  copy  as  before.  Pay  special  attention  to  the 
uses  of  the  comma. 

4.  Exchange  notebooks,  examine  as  before,  and  consider 
in  addition  the  use  of  the  comma. 

27.  The  Dash.  i.  The  dash  is  an  interruption  —  some- 
times sudden  and  abrupt.  It  suspends  the  construction  in 
order  to  change  it,  or  to  give  an  unexpected  turn  to  the  end 
of  .the  sentence. 

But  there  was  no  unusual  sound  —  nothing  but  the  low  wash  of 
the  ripple  and  the  croaking  of  the  crows  in  the  wood. 

Here  are  these  beautiful  fields — I  will  .show  you  the  way 
through  them. 

2.  A  dash,  usually  following  a  comma,  often  introduces 

an  explanation. 

Uncas  enjoyed  his  victory,  but  was  content  with  merely  exhibit- 
ing his  triumph  by  a  quiet  smile,  —  an  emblem  of  scorn  which 
belongs  to  all  lime  and  to  every  nation. 

3.  We  use  dashes  to  set  off  a  parenthetical  expression 
which  is  too  closely  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence 


50        THE   SENTENCE   AND   ITS   PUNCTUATION 

to  be  inclosed  in  marks  of  parenthesis,  and  yet  needs  to  be 
distinctly  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  Commas 
should  precede  the  dashes,  if  commas  would  be  necessary 
provided  the  words  between  the  dashes  were  omitted. 

Thomas  Hughes,  too,  is  gone,  —  Tom  Hughes  would  still  seem 
the  more  accustomed  name,  —  one  of  the  many  men  who  illustrate 
the  somewhat  painful  truth  that  the  heights  of  philanthropy  and 
self-devotion  do  not  yield  so  sure  a  fame  as  a  spark  of  genius. 

Note  i.  Marks  of  parenthesis  are  used  to  inclose  expressions  that 
do  not  form  an  essential  part  of  the  sentence. 

Know  then  this  truth  (enough  for  man  to  know), 
"  Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below." 

Note  2.  Brackets  inclose  insertions  whose  connection  with  the 
text  is  even  slighter.  Often  the  words  included  have  been  added  to 
what  the  original  author  wrote. 

It  [a  great  university]  is  resorted  to  in  most  countries,  notably 
in  our  own  country,  alike  by  rich  and  poor,  by  the  children  of  the 
educated  and  the  uneducated  —  in  short,  by  the  children  of  fam- 
ilies of  all  sorts  and  conditions. 


EXERCISES 

1.  Write  Theme  V  on  any  subject  you  please.  If  you 
like,  you  may  choose  a  subject  from  the  list  made  under 
Exercise  2,  page  33. 

Revise  and  copy  as  before.  See  whether  the  dash  is  of 
service  to  you  in  any  of  your  sentences. 

2.  Exchange  notebooks,  examine  as  before,  and  consider 
in  addition  whether  the  dash  has  been  used  correctly,  or 
might  be  used  to  advantage. 

28.  The  Apostrophe,  i.  The  apostrophe  marks  the  omis- 
sion of  a  letter  or  letters  :  as,  'tis,  I'm,  don' t,  viaji's.  {Vox 
the  possessive  case  see  section  61.) 


QUOTATION    MARKS  5  I 

2.  The  apostrophe  marks  the  omission  of  figures  in  dates. 

•  The  boys  of  '6i. 
The  class  of  '09. 

3.  The  apostrophe  sometimes  marks  the  phiral  of  figures 

and  letters. 

Cross  your  /"s  and  dot  your  is. 

His  7's  look  like  his  g's. 

29.  Quotation  Marks,  i.  Double  quotation  marks  ("  ") 
inclose  a  direct  quotation. 

We  heard  him  say,  "All  is  well." 

2.  Single  quotation  marks  ('  ')  inclose  a  quotation 
within  a  c^uotation. 

This  was  his  answer:  "  I  agree  with  Falstaff  that  'the  better 
part  of  valor  is  discretion.'  " 

"  Being  asked  by  a  young  nobleman  what  was  become  of 
the  gallantry  and  military  spirit  of  the  old  English  nobility,  he 
[Samuel  Johnson]  replied,  'Why,  my  Lord,  I'll  tell  you  what  has 
become  of  it :  it  is  gone  into  the  city  to  look  for  a  fortune.' " 

"  One  of  the  first  aims  of  college  life  is  increase  of  power : 
be  he  scholar  or  athlete,  the  sound  undergraduate  learns  to  meet 
difficulties;  'stumbling  blocks,'  in  the  words  of  an  admirable 
preacher,  '  become  stepping  stones.'  " 

3.  When  paragraphs  are  quoted,  the  quotation  marks  are 
placed  at  the  beginning  of  each  paragraph  and  at  the  end 
of  the  last  paragraph. 

4.  The  title  of  a  book  or  paper  may  be  quoted  or  italicized, 
as  the  writer  prefers.  Some  prefer  "The  House  of  the  Seven 
Gables";  others,  TJie  House  of  the  Seven  Gables. 


EXERCISES 

1.   Copy  from  dictation  the  three  sentences  quoted  above 
under  2.    Explain  the  brackets  in  the  second  sentence. 


52        Till-:   SENTENCE  AND   ITS  PUNCTUATION 

2.  Write  (i)  a  i)ortion  of  a  conversation  at  breakfast  or 
dinner,  or  (2)  a  short  conversation  between  two  girls  about 
a  skating"  party,  or  (3)  a  short  conversation  between  two 
boys  about  a  game  of  football.  Put  what  each  person  says, 
together  with  whatever  you  say  in  connection  with  each 
speech,  in  a  paragraph  by  itself. 

3.  Write  Theme  VI.  Give  your  opinion  of  some  book  or 
of  a  portion  of  it.  Introduce  an  interesting  quotation  from 
the  book.    Revise  and  copy  as  before. 

4.  Exchange  notebooks,  examine  as  before,  and  consider 
in  addition  the  use  of  quotation  marks. 

30.  The  Hyphen,  i.  The  hyphen  (-)  is  used  to  divide  a 
word  at  the  end  of  a  line.  It  separates  syllables.  A  word 
of  one  syllable  is  never  split.  We  may  write  com-mittee  or 
commit-tee,  but  not  comm-ittee  or  committ-ee.  The  hyphen 
comes  at  the  end  of  the  line,  never  at  the  beginning  of  a  line. 

2.  The  hyphen  separates  compound  words  (a)  which  have 
not  yet  become  single  words  :  as,  great-grandfather,  tzventj- 
five,  two-foot  rule  ;  (h)  in  which  it  is  convenient  to  keep  the 
prefix  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  word  ;  as,  rc-crcation,  pre- 
S/iaksperean. 

31.  Asterisks  and  Leaders.  Asterisks  (*  *  *)  or  leaders 
(.  .  .)  denote  omissions. 

1.  She  .  .  .  began  a  song.  .  .  .  The  hand  failed  on  the  strings, 
the  tune  halted,  checked,  and  at  a  low  note  turned  off  to  the  poor 
little  nursery  rh}'me  about  the  wicked  crow  — 

"  And  the  wild  plums  grow  in  the  jungle,  only  a  penny  a  pound. 
Only  a  penny  a  pound,  baba  —  only  .   .  ." 

2.  Then  came  the  tears  .   .   .  till  she  slept. 

Note.  Leaders  are  used  for  omissions  in  the  middle  or  at  the  end 
of  a  paragraph.  Asterisks  are  convenient  for  separating  complete 
paragraphs.     See  page   34. 


THE   HYPHEN  53 

EXERCISES 

1.  Exchange  notebooks  and  examine  Themes  I-VI  to 
see  whether  the  hyphen  has  been  used  correctly. 

2.  Take  from  your  own  writing  or  from  your  reachng  as 
many  ilkistrations  of  the  uses  of  the  comma  as  you  can 
find  before  the  next  recitation. 

3.  (i)  Write  briefly  but  comprehensively  what  you  think 
you  need  to  keep  in  mind  with  reference  to  each  of  the 
marks  of  punctuation.  (2)  As  you  examine  the  punctu- 
ation of  your  own  written  work,  what  are  your  most  serious 
faults  .? 

4.  Copy  and  punctuate  the  following  passages  : 

1.  Cultivate  decision  of  character  in  everything  the  ability  to 
say  yes  or  to  say  no  and  to  do  it  on  the  spot  the  man  who  takes 
too  much  time  in  deciding  things  fearing  that  he  may  decide 
wrong  will  get  ahead  slowly  if  at  all. 

2.  What  you  been  shootin  Corlick  asked  his  wife  as  she  placed 
the  roast  pork  and  potatoes  on  the  table 

Oh  nothin  of  any  account  he  replied  with  affected  indifference 
only  Laban  Wing's  bull 

Why  Corlick  Evans  she  cried 

3.  I  asked  him  what  he  thought  would  become  of  them  there 
and  if  they  had  formed  no  design  of  making  any  escape  he  said 
they  had  many  consultations  about  it  but  that  having  neither  vessel 
nor  tools  to  build  one  nor  provisions  of  any  kind  their  councils 
always  ended  in  tears  and  despair  I  asked  him  how  he  thought 
they  would  receive  a  proposal  from  me  which  might  tend  towards 
an  escape  and  whether  if  they  were  all  here  it  might  not  be  done. 

4.  In  despair  I  went  to  a  great  merchant  on  the  island  and  asked 
him  to  employ  me  my  dear  young  friend  said  he  I  understand 
that  you  have  some  singular  secret  some  charm  or  spell  or  amulet 
or  something  I  don't  know  what  of  which  people  are  afraid  now 
you  know  my  dear  said  the  merchant  swelling  up  and  apparently 


54        'I"MK   SENTENCE  AND   ITS   PUNCTUATION 

prouder  of  his  great  stomach  than  of  his  large  fortune  I  am  not 
of  that  kind  1  am  not  easily  frightened  you  may  spare  yourself  the 
pain  of  trying  to  impose  upon  me  people  who  propose  to  come 
to  time  before  I  arrive  are  accustomed  to  arise  very  early  in  the 
morning  said  he  thrusting  his  thumbs  in  the  armholes  of  his  waist- 
coat and  spreading  the  fingers  like  two  fans  upon  his  bosom  I 
think  1  have  heard  something  of  your  secret  you  have  a  pair  of 
spectacles  I  believe  that  you  value  very  much  because  your  grand- 
mother brought  them  as  a  marriage  portion  to  your  grandfather 
now  if  you  think  fit  to  sell  me  those  spectacles  I  will  pay  you  the 
■  largest  market  price  for  them  what  do  you  say  I  told  him  I  had 
not  the  slightest  idea  of  selling  my  spectacles  my  young  friend 
means  to  eat  them  I  suppose  said  he  with  a  contemptuous  smile  I 
made  no  reply  but  was  turning  to  leave  the  office  when  the  mer- 
chant called  after  me  my  young  friend  poor  people  should  never 
suffer  themselves  to  get  into  pets  anger  is  an  expensive  luxury  in 
which  only  men  of  a  certain  income  can  indulge  a  pair  of  spec- 
tacles and  a  hot  temper  are  not  the  most  promising  capital  for 
success  in  life  Master  Titbottom  [six  paragraphs]. 

5.  Exchange  notebooks  and  examine  Themes  I-VI.  Criti- 
cise the  use  of  the  following  marks:  (i)  colon;  (2)  semi- 
colon ;  (3)  comma  ;  (4)  dash  ;  (5)  apostrophe  ;  (6)  quotation 
marks  ;   (7)  hyphen. 


CHAPTER  VI 
SPELLING 

32.  Ways  of  Learning  to  Spell.  It  is  probably  true  that 
many  persons  remember  a  word  as  they  remember  a  face. 
For  them  the  ideal  way  to  learn  to  spell  would  seem  to  be 
to  take  a  good  look  at  the  words  as  they  read.  But  some 
of  us  do  not  master  spelling  in  that  way.  There  are  scores 
of  words  that  we  see  da)'  after  day  and  yet  misspell.  In 
many  instances  we  must  make  a  special  effort  in  order  to 
spell  accurately. 

If  one  who  has  unusual  difficulty  with  spelling  will  keep 
a  list  of  the  words  that  puzzle  him,  and  review  this  list 
from  day  to  day,  he  will  find  himself  making  steady  improve- 
ment. One  who  masters  five  words  a  day  for  a  year  will 
be  able  to  spell  a  snug  little  vocabulary  at  the  end  of  that 
time.  Fifteen  hundred  everyday  words  make  a  tolerably 
comfortable  outfit  for  a  poor  speller. 

Sometimes  the  mere  writing  of  a  word  will  determine  the 
spelling.  The  moment  we  write  receive  we  know  that  it  is 
correct.  But  if  we  are  likely  to  have  further  trouble  with 
that  word,  suppose  we  write  it  thus,  to  call  extra  attention 
to  the  letters  that  puzzle  : 

recEIve. 

This  method  may  help  us  remember  such  words  as  beliEve, 
decEive,  siEge,  sEize,  villAin,  and  many  another  word ; 
for  example,  villAge,  gramniAr,  superintendEnt.    Or,  if  we 

55 


56  SPELLING 

prefer,  we  may  underscore  such  letters,  thus :  receive, 
believe,  siege,  grammar,  villain  ;  or  receive,  believe,  siege, 
etc.  With  or  without  increasing  the  size  of  the  doubtful 
letters,  it  will  be  an  aid  in  fixing  the  spelling  of  any  word 
to  write  it  out  plainly  several  times. 

33.  Rules  for  Spelling.  Many  persons,  on  the  other  hand, 
.find  rules  convenient.    For  them  the  following  are  included  : 

1.  Monosyllables,  and  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  end- 
ing in  a  single  consonant  following  a  single  vowel,  double  the  final 
consonant  before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel :  as,  beg,  beggar; 
regret,  regretted. 

Note.  If  the  accent  falls  on  a  different  syllable  in  the  derivative, 
the  rule  does  not  apply:  as,  re/a;  reference. 

2.  Final  r  following  a  consonant  changes  to  /  before  a  suffix :  as, 
busy,  business  ;  library,  libraries  ;  spy,  spies. 

Exceptions:  i.  Before  ing  and  ish  the  j'  is  kept  to  avoid 
doubling  the  i:  as,  carry,  carrying;  baby,  babyish. 

2.  y  is  not  changed  in  derivatives  of  wry,  sky,  sliy,  sly, 
spry. 

Note.  Words  ending  in  y  following  a  vowel  are  regular,  except 
lay,  laid  J  pay,  paid;  say,  said;  stay,  stayed  or  staid. 

3.  Words  ending  in  an  unaccented  e  drop  the  e  before  a 
suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel :  a.%,  force,  forcible  ;  invite,  invited ; 
desire,  desirable. 

Exceptions:    1.  Hoeing,  mileage,  shoeing,  toeing. 

2.  Dyeing,  singeing,  and  tingeing  keep  the  e  to  distinguish 
these  words  from  dying,  singing,  and  tinging. 

3.  Words  ending  in  ce  and  ge  keep  the  e  before  able  and  01/s 
in  order  to  retain  the  soft  sound  of  c  and  g:  as,  courage, 
courageous ;  peace,  peaceable. 

4.  Words  ending  in  ie  drop  the  e  and  change  the  i  to  y  before 
adding  i?zg  (to  avoid  doubling  the  z)  :  as,  die,  dying;  lie,  lying; 
tie,  tying. 


RULES   FOR  SPELLING  57 

4.  In  words  in  which  the  diphthongs  ei  and  ie  are  pronounced 
?,  as  in  he,  c  is  followed  by  ei,  all  other  letters  by  ie :  as,  ceiling, 
receive,  piece,  siege,  niece.    Seize  and  weird  are  exceptions. 

34.  The  Formation  of  Plurals.  The  plural  of  most  nouns 
is  formed  by  adding  s  to  the  singular.  When,  however,  the 
sound  of  s  makes  an  extra  syllable,  es  is  added  :  as,  InncJi, 
lunches. 

Exceptions  :  i .  Nouns  ending  in  y  following  a  consonant 
change  J'  to  /  and  add  cs:  as,  ally,  allies  ;  cry,  cries. 

2.  Nouns  ending  in  o  following  a  consonant  generally  add 
es  :  as,  potato,  pototoes  ;  but  the  s  alone  is  added  to  piano, 
solo,  halo,  and  some  others. 

Note.  These  rules  apply  to  the  formation  of  the  third  person 
singular  of  the  present  indicative  active  of  the  verb  :  as,  read,  reads  j 
hush,  hushes  J  carry,  carries  j  neto,  vetoes. 

3.  There  is  no  rule  for  the  formation  of  such  irregular 
plurals  as  teeth,  mice,  oxen,  men,  women,  children,  deer. 

4.  Certain  nouns  ending  \\\  f  ox  fe — beef,  calf,  elf,  half, 
knife,  leaf,  life,  loaf,  self,  sheaf,  shelf,  wife,  wolf —  form  the 
plural  by  changing /or/^  into  ves:  2.?,,  calves,  knives,  loaves,  tic. 

35.  Syllabication.  It  is  difficult  to  give  definite  rules  for 
syllabication,  but  it  seems  wise  to  offer  certain  suggestions 
and  to  point  out  a  few  possible  errors. 

1.  The  division  of  a  word  into  syllables  may  be  determined  to 
some  extent  by  its  etymology ;  for  example,  prefixes  and  suffixes 
form  natural  separate  syllables  :  as,  ex-tol,  lov-ing.  The  root  itself 
of  the  word  should  be  divided  into  such  combinations  of  con- 
sonants and  vowels  as  are  easily  and  naturally  pronounced 
together  :   as,  gon-do-la,  not  go-ndol-a. 

2.  When  there  is  a  doubled  consonant,  the  division  usually 
comes  between  the  two  letters  :  as,  drop-ping,  rub-bing. 

3.  A  word  of  one  syllable  should  never  be  divided. 


58  SPELLING 

4.  A  syllabic  of  one  letter  should  never  be  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  word  :  as,  a-ioay.  If  there  is  not  room  for  the 
whole  word  at  the  end  of  a  line,  the  word  should  be  written  on 
the  next  line. 

5.  Final  k  in  words  like  sample,  little,  and  trifle  should  be 
joined  with  the  preceding  consonant  to  form  the  last  syllable  :  as, 
ficl-dle,  mid-dlc,  etc. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  words  you  have  misspelled 
in  the  writing  you  have  done  during  the  last  month.  In 
preparing  the  list,  look  in  the  dictionary  for  every  word 
about  the  spelling  of  which  you  have  any  doubt  whatever. 
Each  pupil  should  add  to  this  list  the  correct  form  of  every 
ivord  he  misspells  during  the  year. 

.  2.  Write  out  carefully  ten  times  every  one  of  these  words 
which  you  have  misspelled  ;  write  twenty  times  every  word 
you  have  misspelled  more  than  once. 

3.  (i)  Look  over  all  the  writing  you  do  before  the  next 
recitation,  —  whether  it  be  a  letter  written  at  home  or  a 
school  exercise  in  history,  ■ — ■  to  see  whether  your  work 
includes  any  words  which  you  do  not  know  how  to  spell. 
Look  up  all  such  words  and  bring  a  list  of  them  to  the 
English  recitation.  (2)  Make  a  list  of  several  common 
words  used  in  connection  with  each  of  your  studies. 

4.  During  the  coming  month  bring  to  every  recitation  a 
threefold  list  of  words,  collected  as  follows,  (i)  Make  a  list 
as  in  Exercise  3  (i).  (2)  Choose  two  or  three  words  each 
day  from  each  of  your  other  studies.  Liclude  all  words 
which  you  have  misspelled  in  connection  with  these  studies. 
(3)  Select  from  four  pages  of  the  reading  lesson  all  words 
which  you  are  most  likely  to  misspell. 


SPELLING  59 

5.  Be  prepared  to  spell,  orally  or  in  writing,  any  word  in 
the  first  chapter  of  this  book. 

6.  Write  sentences  containing  the  following  words.  If 
you  wish  to  exercise  your  ingenuity,  perhaps  )-ou  can  com- 
bine the  sentences  of  either  I  or  II  in  a  connected  paragraph. 

I  II 

yield  deceive 

siege  receive 
besiege                                     ^       perceive 

believe  respectively 

relieve  respectfully 

till  describe 

until  seize 

view  beginning 

grieve  planning 

friend  descent 

fiend  referred 

precede  occurred 

proceed  accommodate 

7.  Be  sure  that  you  can  spell  all  the  words  in  the  follow- 
ing list,  and  use  as  many  of  them  as  is  feasible  in  writing 
a  paper  on  a  subject  suggested  by  one  or  more  of  them. 

I  II  III 


benefit 

finally 

knight 

chief 

forfeit 

night 

custom 

goddess 

led 

decision 

grammar 

literary 

different 

independent 

loose 

disappear 

infinite 

lose 

disappoint 

intellectual 

noticeable 

exaggerate 

judgment 

possess 

6o 

SPELLING 

prejudice 

prophesy 

there 

})rincipal 

rhythm 

to 

principle 

sentence 

too 

privilege 

separate 

village 

profession 

shepherd 

villain 

promise 

surprise 

writer 

prophecy 

their 

writing 

8.  Be   prepared 

to   spell    the   names 

of   the   following 

authors  : 

Holmes 

Tennyson 

Carlyle 

Coleridge 

Cowell 

^Vordsworth 

George  Eliot 

Burke 

De  Quincey 

Irving 

Jane  Austen 

Cooper 

Goldsmith 

Macaulay 

Spenser 

Shakspere 

Samuel  Johnson 

Chaucer 

Addison 

Hawthorne 

Shelley 

Steele 

Burns 

Thackeray 

9.  Write  the  names  of  all  the  characters  in  the  book 
you  are  now  reading  in  class. 

10.  Be  prepared  to  spell  any  word  in  this  chapter  yp  to 
this  point.  Include  the  list  prepared  under  the  preceding 
exercise.^ 

36.  The  Use  of  Capitals.  In  studying  spelling  we  must 
give  careful  attention  to  the  use  of  capitals.  Capitalization 
is  a  great  help  to  us  in  indicating  important  words  and  in 
making  our  meaning  clear. 

1.  The  pronoun  /and  the  interjection  O  should  always 
be  written  as  capitals. 

2.  Every  independent  sentence,  every  line  of  poetry,  and 
every  direct  quotation  formally  introduced,  should  begin 
with  a  capital. 

1  Perhaps  your  teacher  w  ill  allow  you  to  have  a  spelling  match. 


THE  USE  OF  CAPITALS  6 1 

3.  In  general,  a  capital  calls  attention  to  a  word  of  special 
Importance.     The  following  are  examples  : 

a.  Proper  names,  and  words  which  are  used  as  proper 
names. 

(i)  Names  of  Deity,  such  as  God,  the  Father,  the 
Almighty. 

(2)  The  names  of  the  months,  the  days  of  the  week,  and 
any  word  which  is  used  to  designate  a  special  thing. 

Denver,  the  Missouri  River,  Mount  Wasliington,  the  Meh-ose 
High  School,  the  National  Biscuit  Company,  Patriots'  Day,  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  the  Reformation,  the  Renaissance, 
the  American  Revolution,  the  Ware  Grammar  School. 

Note.  We  must  include  adjectives  formed  from  proper  names, 
such  as  English  and  Geniian,  unless  the  adjectives  are  used  merely 
to  express  a  quality,  as  in  the  case  of  stoical  and  quixotic. 

b.  In  titles  of  newspapers,  essays,  and  books,  all  impor- 
tant words  —  including  the  first. 

"  The  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner,"  "  Young  People  and  Old 
Pictures." 

c.  Titles  of  honor  or  office,  wheai  applied  to  a  particu- 
lar person. 

The  President  of  the  United  States,  the  Governor  of  California, 
Mayor  Brown,  Captain  James,  his  Honor,  her  Majesty. 

d.  Personification. 

Haste  thee,  Nymph,  and  bring  with  thee 
Jest,  and  youthful  Jollity, 
Quips  and  Cranks  and  wanton  Wiles, 
Nods  and  Becks  and  wreathed  Smiles, 
Such  as  hang  on  Hebe's  cheek, 
And  love  to  live  in  dimple  .sleek ; 
Sport  that  wrinkled  Care  derides. 
And  Laughter  holding  both  his  sides. 


62  SPELLING 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  a  sentence  in  which  you  name  every  month 
in  the  year,  all  the  clays  of  the  week,  and  the  seasons. 
(Remember  that  the  names  of  the  seasons  do  not  begin 
with  capitals.) 

2.  "Write  a  sentence  in  which  you  mention  all  the  schools 
which  you  have  ever  attended. 

3.  Write  a  complex  sentence  in  which  you  mention  a 
higher  institution  of  learning  that  you  think  you  may  like 
to  enter  in  the  future,  and  a  firm  for  whom  you  may  wish 
to  work. 

4.  Explain  the  use  of  the  capitals  in  these  sentences  : 

The  North  and  the  South  are  trying  to  understand  each  other. 
When  I  lived  in  the  West,  I  had  a  study  that  faced  the  west. 

5.  Copy  from  this  book  (i)  four  lines  of  poetry,  and  (2) 
four  direct  cjuotations,  at  least  two  of  which  are  introduced 
formally. 

6.  Write  a  sentence  in  which  you  mention  all  of  your 
studies.  Why  should  algebra  begin  with  a  small  letter 
and  English  with  a  capital .? 

7.  Make  a  list  of  five  proper  adjectives. 

8.  Write  the  titles  "mayor,"  "king,"  "president,"  and 
"governor,"  in  connection  with  names  of  persons. 

9.  Write  the  titles  of  three  books  and  two  newspapers 
or  essays. 

10.  In  a  paragraph  give  your  opinion  of  a  newspaper  with 
which  you  are  familiar.  Capitalize  every  important  word  in 
the  title  of  your  composition. 

11.  In  a  paragraph  give  your  opinion  of  the  magazine 
which  you  know  best. 


SPELLING  63 

12.  Copy  the  better  of  these  last  two  papers  in  your 
notebook  as  Theme  VIL 

13.  Exchange  notebooks  and  examine  the  capitaHzation 
of  the  titles  of  Themes  I-VII. 

14.  Exchange  notebooks  and  call  attention  to  all  mis- 
spelled words  in  Themes  I-VII. 

15.  Copy  twenty-five  times  all  the  words  you  misspelled 
in  Themes  I-VII. 

Note.  If  you  ever  forget  how  to  spell  a  word  you  have  copied 
twenty-five  times,  it  certainly  seems  as  if  the  appearance  of  the  word 
would  suggest  the  use  of  a  dictionary. 

16.  Spelling  match.     Be  prepared  to  spell  by  syllables 

any  word  in  this  chapter. 


CHAPTER   VII 
LETTER  WRITING 

37.  Value  of  Letter  Writing.  We  naturally  wish  to  prac- 
tise writing"  which  has  a  practical  value.  A  matter  of  such 
general  interest  and  such  great  importance  that  every  one 
should  be  impatient  to  master  it,  is  letter  writing. 

It  is  a  favorite  form  of  recreation  for  some  persons,  after 
a  hard  day's  work,  to  write  a  letter  to  a  friend.  They  like 
to  focus  their  attention  on  this  friend  for  an  hour,  to  get 
his  point  of  view,  to  tell  him  what  he  would  like  to  know.  It 
appeals  to  them  as  an  investment,  for  it  promises  an  enter- 
taining reply.  Soon  the  friend  will  give  them  a  glimpse  of 
his  little  world.  Now  this  corresponding  is  a  recreation  in 
so  far  as  we  write  without  restraint.  If  a  friend  is  inter- 
ested in  whatever  interests  us,  we  let  our  pen  run  pretty 
freel}' ;  we  give  expression  to  what  is  uppermost  in  our 
minds.  If  some  of  the  attempts  to  make  our  meaning  clear 
are  bungling,  we  know  he  will  try  to  understand  us.  At 
the  same  time,  the  finer  the  friendship  the  more  it  prizes 
courtesy,  and  we  must  not  expect  any  one  else  to  solve  puz- 
zles that  are  due  to  our  indifference  or  laziness.  From  our 
own  point  of  view,  too,  we  cannot  afford,  even  in  the  most 
familiar  letters,  to  lapse  into  uncouth,  slovenly  ways,  any 
more  than  in  conversation  we  can  afford  to  descend  to 
vulgar  expressions. 

It  is  only  to  the  two  or  three  friends  with  whom  we 
"think  aloud,"  that  we  write  with  perfect  freedom.    Most 

64 


VALUE  OF  LETTER  WRITING        65 

of  our  correspondence  must  be  limited  ;  and  the  limitations 
make  it,  as  a  form  of  training",  most  valuable.  We  gener- 
ally have  a  definite  object  in  writing  —  a  particular  errand 
to  put  on  paper.  There  is  one  thing  which  a  business 
man  wishes  us  to  tell  him  ;  he  cannot  stop  to  read  any- 
thing else.  Our  writing  must  have  unity  and  brevity.  Our 
success,  therefore,  often  depends  largely  on  our  ability 
to  understand  the  wishes  of  the  person  whom  we  are 
addressing. 

At  another  time  we  have  a  favor  to  ask.  Again  we 
study  our  man.  He  may  be  easy  to  antagonize.  We  must 
at  any  rate  expect  him  to  be  busy;  we  have  no  right  to 
waste  his  time.  Hence  the  need  of  making  him  understand 
us  readily  and  fully  —  of  expressing  ourselves  so  clearly 
that  he  may  not  misunderstand  us. 

There  is  an  advantage  in  having  to  interest  only  one 
man.  Our  problem  seems  much  more  specific  when  we 
have  a  definite  explanation  to  make  to  a  definite  reader. 
We  can  easily  see,  however,  on  further  reflection,  that  when 
we  have  learned  to  satisfy  one  man  we  have  learned  to 
satisfy  many  others.  Whereas  a  talk  to  nobody  in  particu- 
lar may  interest  nobody,  a  speaker  who  talks  to  one  man 
in  his  audience  may  give  most  of  his  audience  the  impres- 
sion that  he  is  talking  to  each  one  of  them.  It  was  said 
of  the  late  Dr.  Babcock,  pastor  of  the  famous  old  Brick 
Church  in  New  York,  that  "  there  is  the  feeling  during  his 
preaching  that  Dr.  Babcock  has  you  individually  by  the  arm 
and  is  talking  to  you  earnestly,  quietly,  and  impressively." 

38.  The  Paper.  With  the  numerous  kinds  and  sizes  of 
paper  at  our  disposal  in  these  days,  we  have  no  excuse 
for  not  choosing  paper  suited  to  our  various  needs.    White 


66  LETTER  WRITING 

unruled  paper  is  always  in  good  taste  for  all  forms  of  cor- 
respondence, r'our-page  paper  looks  better  for  letters  of 
friendship  than  the  two-page  form  used  in  business.  Natu- 
rally we  should  try  to  adapt  the  size  of  the  paper  to  the 
length  of  the  communication,  with  a  view  to  making  the 
letter  pleasing  in  appearance^  and  easy  to  read.  Little 
thought  is  necessary  to  decide  whether  to  use  ordinary 
business  paper,  some  eight  inches  by  ten  in  size,  or  note 
paper,  for  inviting  a  friend  to  lunch. 

39.  The  Beginning  of  a  Letter.  In  beginning  a  letter  we 
should  consider  (i)  the  heading,  (2)  the  address,  (3)  the 
salutation.    Study  the  following  illustrations  : 

1.  36  Allen  Street, 

Cambridge,  Mass., 

May  1,  1905. 
Messrs.  Horn  &  Company, 

52  Bond  Street,  Pordand,  Me. 
Dear  Sirs : 

2.  10  Bond  Street, 

Nashua,  N.H., 

February  5,  1906. 
Miss  Olivia  E.  Long, 

Stratham,  N.H. 
Dear  Madam : 

3.  Center  Lovell, 

Oxford  Co.,  Me., 

March  6,  1906. 


Mrs.  James  E.  Williams, 

l^inehur.st,  N.C. 
Dear  Madam : 

TJie  Heading.  As  the  foregoing  illustrations  show,  the 
heading  includes  (i)  the  writer's  address,  and  (2)  the  date. 
None  of  the  details  given  above  should  ever  be  omitted 
unless  the  writer  is  sure  they  are  so  well  known  as  to  be 


THE   BEGINNING  OF  A  LETTER  67 

unnecessary.    In  illustration  (3),  in  the  case  of  the  village 
of  Center  Lovell,  the  name  of  the  county  is  useful. 

The  heading  is  usually  placed  an  inch  or  more  from 
the  top  of  the  page  and  near  the  right-hand  corner.  The 
first  line  should  begin  far  enough  toward  the  left  to 
allow  each  succeeding  line  to  begin  a  little  farther  toward 
the  right. 

Such  words  as  street  and  aiicjiue  and  the  names  of  the 
months  may  be  abbreviated,  but  the  year  should  always  be 
written  in  full,  as  1906,  not  '06. 

The  Address.  In  business  letters  the  address  of  the  per- 
son to  whom  the  correspondence  is  sent  should  begin  on 
the  line  below  the  date,  and  well  to  the  left.  As  in  the 
heading,  the  second  line  should  begin  a  little  to  the  right 
of  the  first  line.  Sometimes  the  address  is  placed  at  the 
close  of  the  letter,  but  it  is  more  convenient  to  have  it  pre- 
cede the  letter.  Naturally,  many  informal  letters  do  not 
require  the  address. 

The  Salutation.  Just  below  the  address,  when  there  is 
one,  comes  the  salutation.  If  there  is  no  address,  the  salu- 
tation takes  its  place.  In  choosing  a  form  of  salutation  the 
writer  has  an  opportunity  to  show  the  relations  that  exist 
between  him  and  his  correspondent.  He  should  make  his 
choice  with  care.  The  following  salutations  are  used  in 
formal  business  letters : 

Dear  Sir:  ^r.My  dear  Sir: 

Dear  Madam  :    or  My  dear  Madam  (applies  to  a  married  or 
to  an  unmarried  woman)  : 
Dear  Sirs  :  or  (lenllemeii : 

NoTK.  Too  formal  for  common  u.se,  but  suitable  for  persons  of 
note,  —  for  example,  officials  in  high  position,  —  are  6V>' :  and  Madam  : 


^ 


68  LETTER  WRITING 

In  informal  letters  we  write  : 

Dear  Mr.  Browne  :  or  My  dear  Mr.  Browne: 
Dear  Miss  Davis:  or  My  dear  Miss  Davis: 

or,  with  more  informalit}',  we  use  the  comma  instead  of 

the  colon  : 

Dear  Mr.  Browne,  or  My  dear  Mr.  Browne, 
Dear  Miss  Davis,  or  My  dear  Miss  Davis, 

or,  most  informally. 

Dear  Father,  My  dear  Cousin, 

Dear  Fred,       '  My  dear  Brother, 

Dear  Alice,  My  dear  Annie. 

Although  the  punctuation  of  the  salutation  varies  a  good 
deal,  it  is  a  safe  rule  to  use  the  comma  as  the  informal,  and 
the  colon  as  the  formal,  mark  of  punctuation. 

40.  The  Body  of  the  Letter.  The  main  part  of  the  letter, 
or  the  body,  should  begin  on  the  line  below  the  salutation. 
The  following  arrangement  is  a  good  one  : 

Bucksport,  Maine, 

July  15,  1904. 
Messrs.  Thomas  Y.  Crowell  &  Co., 
46  East  14th  St., 

New  York  City. 
Dear  Sirs  : 

Kindly  mail  me  a  copy  of  "  Self-Cultivation  in  Eng- 
lish," by  Professor  George  H.  Palmer.    I  inclose  thirty-five  cents 

i"  stamps.  yg^.y  ^^^,ly  y^^J^g^ 

Wendell  R.  Barrow. 

If  it  is  true  that  "  there  is  nothing  in  which  the  character 
of  the  superior  man  or  woman  expresses  itself  more  than 
in  letter  writing,"  we  should  be  at  our  best  when  we  write 
letters.    We  should  remember  that  we  can  never  tell  who 


THE   BODY  OF  THE   LETTER  69 

may  read  our  letters,  or  how  long  they  may  be  preserved. 
Apologies  in  letters  are  tedious  if  not  exasperating.  These 
we  may  avoid  in  two  ways  :  by  replying  to  letters  promptly, 
and  by  making  our  reply  as  good  as  we  possibly  can.  A 
business  letter  should  be  answered  at  once.  If  we  feel  hur- 
ried, let  us  save  time  by  using  few  words,  not  by  writing 
rapidly.  A  letter  should  be  easily  legible.  An  attractive 
manuscript  is  a  good  beginning  of  the  courtesy  that  is 
indispensable  in  correspondence. 

A  letter,  like  a  talk,  may  be  one  composition  or  it  may 
consist  of  several  compositions.  If  it  deals  with  one  sub- 
ject only,  it  should,  like  any  other  composition,  have  an 
orderly  arrangement  of  thought  and  grow  in  interest  to  the 
end.  If,  like  most  conversations,  it  consists  of  several  com- 
positions, the  writer  should  attend  to  each  of  them  in  turn ; 
it  is  also  desirable  that  such  a  letter  should  grow  in  interest. 
In  all  letters  there  is  need  of  careful  paragraphing. 

Every  letter,  too,  should  have  an  appropriate  beginning 
and  an  appropriate  ending.  The  writer  who  thinks  for  him- 
self does  not  need  to  begin  a  letter  exactly  as  some  one  else 
has  begun  one  ;  and  the  writer  who  wishes  to  do  finished 
work  will  not  stop  awkwardly  or  abruptly  with  the  announce- 
ment that  "the  dinner  bell  has  rung."  Such  writers  will 
avoid  these  expressions  : 

1.  I  take  my  pen  in  hand  to  infonn  you. 

2.  I  thought  I  would  drop  you  a  line. 

3.  It  is  late,  so  I  must  close. 

4.  Yours  received  and  in  reply  will  say. 

41.  The  Conclusion  of  a  Letter.  In  the  conclusion  of  a 
letter  there  are  (i)  the  complimentary  close,  and  (2)  the 
signature. 


70  LETTER  WRrriNG 

The  coiiiprujioitary  close,  like  the  salutation,  should  show 
the  relation  that  exists  between  the  writer  and  his  corre- 
spondent. 

The  most  common  business  forms  are  : 

Yours  truly,  or  Truly  yours, 

Yours  ver)'  truly,  or  Very  truly  yours. 

A  form  especially  appropriate  in  addressing'  an  honorable 
body,  or  a  person  older  than  the  writer,  though  used  also 
as  a  regular  business  form,  is  : 

Yours  respectfully,  or  Respectfully  yours. 

Specimens  of  forms  which  serve  as  appropriate  endings 
for  letters  of  friendship,  and  sometimes  for  letters  of  busi- 
ness, are  : 

Sincerely  yours.  Faithfully  yours.  Cordially  yours,  Fraternally 
yours,  or  Yours  sincerely.  Yours  faithfully,  etc. 

As  the  letter  in  section  40  shows,  the  place  for  the  coqj- 
plimentary  close  is  on  the  line  below  the  last  words  of  the 
body  of  the  letter.  It  should  be  noted,  too,  that  in  the 
forms  given  above,  the  first  word  begins  with  a  capital,  and 
the  last  word  is  followed  by  a  comma. 

The  signature  goes  on  the  line  below  the  complimentary 
close,  and  a  little  to  the  right.  It  should  give  the  reader  all 
the  information  he  needs  fot-making  a  suitable  reply.  As  a 
rule  it  is  well  to  write  the  first  name  in  full.  A  stranger 
may  be  puzzled  to  know  whether  J.  D.  Brozvn  is  a  man  or  a 
woman ;  whereas  he  could  tell  at  a  glance,  if  it  were  Jennie 


THE  CONCLUSION   OF  A   LETTER  71 

D.  Brozvu  ox  John  D.  Bnnvn.    In  writing  to  a  stranger  a  lady 
should  sign  her  name  thus  : 

(1)  Emma  L.  Brown  (Mrs.  James  A.  Brown) 

or  (2)  (Miss)  Sarah  E.  Lathrop 

or  (3)  S.  E.  Lathrop 

Miss  Sarah  E.  Lathrop, 
Macon,  Ga. 

or  (4)  (Mrs.)  Mary  W.  Bliss 

EXERCISES 

1.  W^rite  a  subscription  for  The  Yo?ti/i's  Companion. 

2.  As  examiner  give  especial  attention  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  letter. 

3.  Give  headings,  salutations,  and  conclusions  that  you 
might  use  in  writing  to  (i)  a  teacher;  (2)  a  physician; 
(3)  an  intimate  friend;  (4)  the  city  council;  (5)  the  chair- 
man of  the  board  of  selectmen  ;  (6)  the  mayor ;  ^  (7)  the 
superintendent  of  schools  ;  (8)  a  member  of  your  family  ; 
(9)  an  unmarried  woman  whom  you  have  not  met ;  (10)  an 
unmarried  woman  whom  you  know  slightly;  (11)  a  man 
much  older  than  yourself. 

42.  The  Folding  of  a  Letter.  A  letter  should  be  folded 
with  the  first  page  inside. 

If  the  paper  is  of  the  ordinary  business  letter  size,  fold 
it  first  from  the  bottom  toward  the  top.  Then  make  a  fold 
from  right  to  left  a  little  narrower  than  the  width  of  the  en- 
velope, and  finally  make  a  third  fold  from  left  to  right.  The 
letter  is  now  ready  to  go  into  the  envelope  right  side  up. 

1  For  e.xample,  Hon.  James  T.  Clark,  Mayor  of  Wilmington,  Delaware.  Sir: 
\or  Your  Honor  :]. 


72  LE^ITER  WRITING 

EXERCISES 

1.  Answer  for  Messrs.  T.  Y.  Crowell  &  Co.  the  letter 
from  Mr.  Barrow  (page  68).    Fold  your  letter. 

2.  Exchange  the  letters  just  written.  Criticise  in  writing: 
( I )  the  appearance  of  the  letter,  including  the  kind  of  paper 
used  and  the  size  ;  (2)  the  beginning,  including  the  heading, 
the  address,  and  the  salutation  ;  (3)  the  body  —  whether 
it  is  a  complete  answer  to  the  request ;  (4)  the  conclu- 
sion, including  the  complimentary  close  and  the  signature; 
(5)  the  folding. 

43.  The  Direction  of  the  Envelope.  It  is  customary  to 
arrange  the  name  and  the  address  of  the  recipient  of  the 
letter  in  three  or  four  lines.  The  name  is  written  across 
the  middle  of  the  envelope,  and  so  placed  as  to  leave  about 
the  same  amount  of  space  on  each  side.  If  the  envelope  is 
long,  there  should  be  more  space  on  the  left  of  the  name 
than  on  the  right.  As  in  the  case  of  the  heading,  each 
succeeding  line  begins  a  little  to  the  right. 

Note  carefully  the  content,  the  arrangement,  and  the 
punctuation  of  the  following  envelope  addresses : 

1.  Mr.  William  H.  Roberts 

10  Perry  Street 
Toledo 
Ohio 

2.  Dr.  Samuel  We.st 

Farmville 

North  Carolina 
Care  of  Mr.  T.  H.  Taft 

3.  Messns.  R.  H.  Brown  &  Co. 

512  Bonding  St. 

New  York  City 


THE   DIRECTION   OF  THE   ENVELOPE        '    73 

The  punctuation  marks  are  of  no  value  unless  they  mark 
abbreviations.  Does  not  their  omission  add  to  the  attract- 
iveness of  the  envelope  ? 

Either  ATr.  or  Esq.  —  but  not  both  —  is  used  in  address- 
ing men.  Some  reserve  Esq.  for  lawyers,  for  whom  it  is 
always  appropriate  ;  some,  for  men  who  have  achieved  dis- 
tinction.   Others  use  it  freely  instead  of  Mr. 

It  is  not  in  good  taste  to  use  the  husband's  title  in  ad- 
dressing the  wife,  as  Mrs.  Dr.  Davis. 

Address  the  principal  of  a  school  as  Walter  A.  Davis,  Esq., 
Principal  of  the  Central  High  School.  In  addressing  a  pro- 
fessor, write  Professor  William  H.  White.  Prin.  and  Prof. 
are  unattractive  abbreviations. 

Instead  of  Rev.  Dr.  John  B.  Luce,  write  The  Rev.  John 
B.  Luce,  D.D. 

Hon.  is  a  title  given  to  persons  "  who  hold  or  have  held 
any  considerable  office  under  the  national  or  State  govern- 
ment, particularly  to  members  and  ex-members  of  Congress 
and  of  State  legislatures,  to  judges,  justices,  and  some  other 
judicial  ofificers,  as  well  as  to  certain  executive  officers,"  ^as 

mayors. 

EXERCISE 

On  slips  of  paper  cut  three  and  one-half  inches  by  six, 
four  by  nine,  or  four  by  five,  write  suitable  envelope  ad- 
dresses to  the  following  persons  and  firms.  Choose  in  each 
instance  the  size  which  you  consider  the  most  appropriate. 

1.  One  of  your  teachers. 

2.  A  well-known  business  house  in  your  town. 

3.  The  wife  of  a  physician,  in  care  of  a  doctor  of  divinity. 

4.  A  lawyer  (the  inclosure  to  be  a  legal  document). 

1  The  Century  Dictionary. 


74  LETTER  WRiriNG 

5.  A  member  of  Congress  in  care  of  a  man  whose  post-office 
box  is  25. 

6.  A  prominent  firm  in  a  neighboring  city. 

44.  Suggestions,  i.  A  good  letter  shows  clearly  where, 
when,  to  whom,  and  by  whom  it  was  written. 

2.  A  careful  letter  writer  keeps  in  mind  his  relations 
with  the  person  to  whom  he  writes. 

3.  Abbreviations  are  in  general  to  be  avoided.  The  men 
who  do  the  most  business  usually  find  time  to  spell  the  full 
word.    "  Y'rs  rec'd  "  and  "  Resp'y  "  are  unnecessary. 

4.  The  order  of  the  pages  should  be  perfectly  clear  to 
the  reader. 

5.  When  sent  by  a  friend,  a  note  should  not  be  sealed 
unless  the  bearer  chooses  to  seal  it.  On  the  envelope  in- 
closing such  a  note  we  write  : 

Mr.  James  A.  Wilbur 

Kindness  of  Mr.  Howard 

6.  It  is  a  good  rule  to  inclose  a  stamp  whenever  we  ask 
a  favor  which  calls  for  the  use  of  a  stamp. 

7.  It  is  wise  to  write  your  name  and  address  in  the  upper 
left-hand  corner  of  an  envelope  which  incloses  a  letter  of 
special  importance. 

8.  Such  a  little  thing  as  placing  the  stamp  in  the  upper 
right-hand  corner,  right  side  up,  adds  to  the  attractiveness  of 
the  envelope. 

SPECIMEN.S  OF   LETTERS 

45.  Business  Letters.  Having  mastered  the  forms,  the 
w^riter  of  a  business  letter  should  take  pains  to  be  ( i )  clear,  and 
(2)  concise.  He  should  tell  the  busy  man  whom  he  is  address- 
ing precisely  what  that  man  needs  to  know  and  nothing  more. 


BUSINESS   LETTERS  75 

The   reply  to   a   business   letter  should  be  prompt  and 

definite. 

Examine  carefully  the  following  letter  to  The  Outlook 

Company,  to  see  whether  it  contains  all  needful  information 

and  no  more. 

190  Bowdoin  Street, 

Worcester,  Mass., 

August  16,  1905. 
The  Outlook  Company, 

287  Fourth  Avenue, 

New  York  City. 
Gentlemen  : 

Inclosed   you  will  find  a  money  order   for   three 

dollars,  for  which  please  send   "The  Outlook"  to  my  address 

during  the  coming  year. 

Yours  truly, 

\Valter  H.  Bigelow. 
EXERCISES 

1.  Write  one  of  your  teachers  a  letter  requesting  him  to 
recommend  you  for  a  position  you  would  like  to  fill.  Tell 
him  as  definitely  as  possible  what  your  work  will  be,  give 
him  the  name  and  address  of  the  firm  or  man  to  whom  he 
is  to  write,  and  show  that  you  will  appreciate  any  favor  he 
can  see  his  way  clear  to  do  for  you. 

As  a  way  of  closing  such  a  letter,  which  of  the  two  forms 
that  follow  do  you  prefer  ?  Which  is  the  more  modest  and 
unassuming  ? 

1.  Thanking  yon  in  advance  for  your  favor,  I  am 

Yours  respectfully, 

A.  I>.  Brown. 

2.  Hoping  that  I  am  not  asking  too  much  of  you,  I  am 

Yours  respectfully, 

A.  V>.  Brown. 


76  LETTER  WRITING 

Insert  your  letter  right  side  up  in  a  properly  addressed 
envelope. 

2.  (i)  Apply  for  a  situation.  First  get  the  correct  name 
and  address  of  the  person  or  persons  to  whom  you  write. 
Then  tell  why  you  are  applying,  mention  any  experience  or 
training  which  would  tend  to  make  your  services  of  value, 
and  give  the  name  and  address  of  some  one  who  may  be 
asked  about  your  character  and  ability.  Read  your  letter 
aloud  slowly  and  cut  out  all  unnecessary  words. 

(2)  Answer  your  letter.  You  will  now  have  a  good 
opportunity  to  test  the  clearness  and  completeness  of  the 
application. 

3.  Write  an  order  for  six  kinds  of  groceries.  Give  a  line 
to  each  kind,  thus  : 

I  lb.  Mocha  Coffee 
I  gal.  Molasses 

4.  Write  a  business  letter  from  dictation.  This  letter  is 
to  be  dictated  by  one  of  the  pupils.  The  teacher  will  fur- 
nish the  subject  at  the  time.  The  pupil  is  to  have  no  oppor- 
tunity for  preparation.  For  example,  the  teacher  might  say, 
''  You  may  order  one  hundred  copies  of  the  algebra  you  are 
studying,"  and  the  pupil  would  be  expected  to  dictate  to  the 
class  a  letter  with  all  the  necessary  information  about  title, 
edition,  etc. 

5.  Goods  ordered  ten  days  ago  have  not  come.  In  a  tele- 
gram of  ten  words  ask  why,  and  when  you  can  have  them. 

6.  Write  (i)  a  receipt  for  money  paid  you  on  account ; 
(2)  a  receipt  in  full ;  (3)  a  promissory  note.  (For  a  defini- 
tion see  a  large  dictionary.) 

7.  Does  the  writer  of  the  following  give  the  real  estate 
firm  enough  information  }  If  not,  supply  whatever  is  needed. 


BUSINESS  LETTERS  77 

Then  answer  the  letter  for  Messrs.  Brown  &  Thompson. 
Thank  Mr.  Rand  for  the  favor  and  write  briefly  about  two 
houses  which  you  think  will  suit  him.  Assure  him  that  you 
will  be  glad  to  show  him  these  houses,  and  others  that  may 
interest  him,  at  his  convenience.  Call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  there  is  considerable  demand  for  such  houses. 

2  Ward  St., 

Chicago,  Illinois, 

July  2,  1905. 
Messrs.  Brown  &  Thompson, 

9  Main  St., 

Cambridge,  Mass. 
Dear  Sirs  : 

During  the  next  four  years,  while  my  daughter  is  to 
study  at  Radcliffe,  I  shall  wish  to  live  in  Cambridge.  My  family 
will  need  a  house  with  five  chambers,  — four  of  which  must  be 
roomy,  —  a  good  bathroom,  and  convenient  kitchen  and  pantry 
arrangements.  I  prefer  a  location  within  half  a  mile  of  the  college 
and  shall  insist  on  settling  in  a  quiet  community.  The  house 
must  be  ready  for  us  by  September  i.  If  you  know  of  any 
houses  that  would  be  likely  to  suit  us,  please  send  me  word  at 
your  earliest  convenience,  giving  the  lowest  prices  for  which  they 
may  be  rented  by  the  year  or  leased  for  four  years. 

Yours  truly, 

A.  K.  Rand. 

46.  Letters  of  Friendship.  \\'c  have  access  to  a  good 
many  friendly  letters  that  arc  interesting  and  inspiring. 
Some  of  the  best  have  been  written  by  Eugene  Field,  Scott, 
Lowell,  Cowpcr,  Thackera}-,  Thomas  Jefferson,  Washington 
Irving,  Longfellow,  Thorcau,  Cromwell,  and  Gray.  Let  us 
study  a  few  of  them  in  order  that  we  may,  if  possible,  dis- 
cover in  each  case  the  writer's  secret,  —  find  out  how  he 
succeeded  in  making  his  letter  attractive. 


78  T.ETTER  WRITING 

The  first  letter  that  we  shall  examme  was  written  by 
Stevenson,  in  reply  to  a  boy  who  had  asked  him  for  his 
autograph.    Point  out  whatever  pleases  you  in  the  answer.^ 

Vailima,  Upolu,  Samoa, 

November  28,  1891. 

Dear  Sir,  —  Your  obliging  communication  is  to  hand.  I  am  glad 
to  find  that  you  have  read  some  of  my  books,  and  to  see  that  you 
spell  my  name  right.  This  is  a  point  (for  some  reason)  of  great 
difficulty  ;  and  I  believe  that  a  gentleman  who  can  spell  Stevenson 
with  a  V  at  sixteen  should  have  a  show  for  the  Presidency  before 
fifty.    By  that  time 

"  I,  nearer  to  the  wayside  inn," 

predict  that  you  will  have  outgrown  your  taste  for  autographs, 
but  perhaps  your  son  may  have  inherited  the  collection,  and  on 
the  morning  of  the  great  day  will  recall  my  prophecy  to  your 
mind.  And  in  the  papers  of  192 1  (say)  this  letter  may  arouse 
a  smile. 

Whatever  you  do,  read  something  else  besides  novels  and 
newspapers ;  the  first  are  good  enough  when  they  are  good ;  the 
second,  at  their  best,  are  worth  nothing.  Read  great  books  of 
literature  and  history ;  try  to  understand  the  Roman  Empire  and 
the  Middle  Ages  ;  be  sure  you  do  not  understand  when  you  dislike 
them  ;  condemnation  is  non-comprehension.  And  if  you  know 
something  of  these  two  periods,  you  will  know  a  little  more  about 
to-day,  and  may  be  a  good  President. 

I  send  you  my  best  wishes,  and  am  yours, 

Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 
Author  of  a  vast  quantify  of  little  books. 

Our  friends  prize  highly  the  letters  into  which  we  put 
much  of  ourselves.  In  each  of  the  two  following  letters 
what  does  the  writer  tell  of  his  character  t 

1  From  "  The  Letters  of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,"  Vol.  II,  by  permission  of 
Charles  Scribner"s  Sons. 


LETTERS  OF   FRIENDSHIP  79 

Phillips  Brooks  to  his  Niece  ^ 

Munich,  September  2,  1883. 

Dear  Gertie,  —  When  I  came  away,  the  first  man  that  wrote  me 
a  letter  only  two  days  after  the  Servia  had  steamed  out  of  New 
York  bay  was  you.  And  now  that  I  am  coming  home,  the  last 
letter  which  I  write  from  the  Old  World  to  any  man  in  America 
shall  be  to  you.  For  I  want  to  tell  you  myself  that  I  shall  see  you 
on  September  22.  I  suppose  you  will  not  be  quite  able  to  run 
over  to  the  wharf  at  East  Boston  when  the  Cephalonia  gets  in, 
but  I  shall  come  up  to  see  you  just  as  soon  as  the  customhouse 
people  let  me  out  of  prison,  after  I  have  paid  the  duties  upon  all 
the  heaps  of  presents  I  have  got  for  you  ! 

Wasn't  it  good  that  the  baths  at  Sharon  helped  you  so  much? 
I  was  at  a  place  the  other  day  where  the  people  take  baths  for 
rheumatism.  It  is  called  Bad  Gastein,  but  it  isn't  bad  at  all ;  it  is 
very  good.  It  is  away  back  in  the  hills,  and  there  is  a  tremendous 
waterfall  which  runs  right  through  the  house,  and  keeps  up  such  a 
racket  you  can't  get  any  sleep.  But  that  does  no  great  harm,  be- 
cause you  have  to  take  your  bath  so  early  that,  if  it  were  not  for 
the  waterfall  in  the  next  room,  you  would  sleep  over  and  never  get 
any  bath  at  all,  and  so  some  time  you  might  have  the  rheumatism 
all  your  life.  I  didn't  have  any  rheumatism,  so  I  went  and  took 
a  bath  for  yours,  and  I  rather  think  that  is  what  made  you  feel  so 
much  better.  You  thought  it  was  the  baths  you  were  taking  at 
Sharon,  but  it  was  really  the  bath  I  was  taking  at  Bad  Gastein  ! 

I  wonder  how  soon  you  will  come  and  see  me  when  I  get  back. 
Everybody  here  eats  his  breakfast,  and  luncheon,  and  dinner  out- 
doors. I  like  it,  and  think  I  shall  do  so  myself  when  I  get  home ; 
so  when  you  come  to  breakfast,  we  will  have  our  table  out  on  the 
grass  plot  in  Newbury  Street,  and  Katie  shall  bring  us  our  beef- 
steak there.  Will  it  not  make  the  children  stare  as  they  go  by  to 
school?  We'll  toss  the  crumbs  to  them  and  the  robins.  But  you 
must  hurry  and  get  well,  or  we  cannot  do  all  this.  My  love  to 
Agnes  and  Tood.  Your  affectionate  uncle,  P. 

1  riiillips  Brooks  :  "  Letters  of  Travel." 


8o  LETTER  WRITING 

From  Edward  Fitzgerald 

Geldestone  Hall, 

September  9  [1S34]. 

Dear  Allen, 

.  .  .  [Your  letter]  has  indeed  been  a  long  time 
coming,  but  it  is  all  the  more  delicious.  Perhaps  you  can't  imagine 
how  wistfully  1  have  looked  for  it ;  how,  after  a  walk,  my  eyes 
have  turned  to  the  table,  on  coming  into  the  room,  to  see  it. 
Sometimes  I  have  been  tempted  to  be  angry  with  you ;  but  then 
I  have  thought  that  I  was  sure  you  would  come  a  hundred  miles 
to  serve  me,  though  you  were  too  lazy  to  sit  down  to  a  letter. 
I  suppose  that  people  who  are  engaged  in  serious  ways  of  life, 
and  are  of  well-filled  minds,  don't  think  much  about  the  inter- 
change of  letters  with  any  anxiety ;  but  I  am  an  idle  fellow,  of  a 
very  ladylike  turn  of  sentiment,  and  my  friendships  are  more  like 
loves,  I  think.  .  .  . 

Farewell,  my  dearest  fellow ;  you  have  made  me  very  happy  to 
hear  from  you,  and  to  know  that  all  is  so  well  with  you.  Believe 
me  to  be  your  ever  affectionate  friend, 

\  E.  Fitzgerald. 

There  are  times  when  a  few  words  of  sympathy  are 
more  welcome  than  anything  else  we  can  send  a  friend. 
If  we  are  to  help  a  friend  bear  grief >  we  must  first  under- 
stand his  suffering  partly,  if  not  wholly.  Then,  in  our  ex- 
pression of  sympathy,  instead  of  making  him  feel  worse,  we 
should  try  to  call  his  attention  to  some  one  thing  which 
will  give  him  real  comfort. 

What  can  we  learn  from  the  following  letter  of  Abraham 
Lincoln's  ^  ?  To  what  extent  did  he  seem  to  understand  the 
mother's  grief  .?  To  what  extent  did  he  probably  comfort  her? 

What  words  seem  to  you  particularly  well  chosen  ? 

1  From  "  The  Complete  Works  of  Abraham  Lincohi,"  Vol.  II,  by  permission  of 
The  Century  Co. 


LETTERS  OF   FRIENDSHIP  8 1 

Executive  Mansion, 

Washington,  November  21,  1864. 
Mrs.  Bixby, 

Boston,  Massachusetts. 
Dear  Madam  : 

I  have  been  shown  in  the  files  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment a  statement  of  the  Adjutant-General  of  Massachusetts  that 
you  are  the  mother  of  five  sons  who  have  died  gloriously  on  the 
field  of  battle.  I  feel  how  weak  and  fruitless  must  be  any  words  of 
mine  which  should  attempt  to  beguile  you  from  the  grief  of  a  loss 
so  overwhelming.  But  I  cannot  refrain  from  tendering  to  you 
the  consolation  that  may  be  found  in  the  thanks  of  the  Republic 
they  died  to  save.  I  pray  that  our  heavenly  Father  may  assuage 
the  anguish  of  yoUr  bereavement,  and  leave  you  only  the  cherished 
memory  of  the  loved  and  lost,  and  the  solemn  pride  that  must  be 
yours  to  have  laid  so  costly  a  sacrifice  upon  the  altar  of  freedom. 
Yours  very  sincerely  and  respectfully, 

Abraham  Lincoln. 
EXERCISES 

1.  Write  the  opening-  paragraph  of  a  letter  to  a  friend  in 
as  sprightly  a  style  as  that  used  by  Madame  de  Sevigne  in 
beginning  a  letter  to  Madame  de  Grignan  : 

The  Rocks,  Monday,  February  3,  1676. 

Guess,  my  dear  child,  what  it  is  that  comes  the  quickest,  and 
goes  off  the  slowest ;  that  brings  you  nearest  to  health,  and 
removes  you  the  furthest  from  it  ;  that  throws  you  into  the  most 
agreeable  situation  imaginable,  and,  at  the  same  time,  hinders  you 
from  enjoying  it ;  that  flatters  you  with  the  most  pleasing  hopes, 
and  keeps  you  the  longest  from  the  accomplishment  of  them. 
Can  not  you  guess?  Do  you  give  it  up?  Why,  it  is  the  rheu- 
matism. I  have  had  it  these  three  and  twenty  days ;  since  the 
fourteenth  day  I  have  been  free  from  fever  and  pain,  and  in  this 
delightful  situation,  thinking  myself  strong  enough  to  walk,  which 
is  the  summit  of  my  wishes,  I  find  myself  swelled  all  over  —  feet, 
legs,  hands,  arms  ;  and  this  swelling,  which  they  call  my  cure,  and 


82  LETTER  Wkl'J'lNG 

in'reality  is  so,  is  the  sole  occasion  of  my  present  vexation  ;  were 
I  good  for  anything,  I  might  gain  myself  some  credit  by  it.  How- 
ever, I  believe  the  enemy  is  conquered,  and  that  in  two  days  I 
shall  be  able  to  walk. 

2.  Write  a  letter  to  a  friend  whom  you  are  not  likely  to 
see  for  a  long  time.  Try  to  be  as  entertaining  as  "Gail  Ham- 
ilton "  was  in  this  portion  of  a  letter  of  hers  to  Whittier : 

You  don't  want  me  to  write  you  a  letter,  I  know,  but  I  will, 
and  you  cannot  help  yourself.  .  .  . 

Why  don't  you  come  and  help  me  kill  caterpillars?  There  are 
eighty-five  thousand  millions  on  our  trees.  I  burn  them  up  first, 
then  I  bathe  them  in  kerosene  oil,  and  then  I  wash  it  off  in  soap- 
suds. I  think  they  rather  like  it.  How  they  cuddle  up  together, 
don't  they  ?  But  they  are  nasty  little  beasts  —  that's  all  you  can 
say  about  it ;  and  there's  a  man  and  a  boy  coming,  who  are  going 
to  exterminate  them,  horse,  foot,  and  dragoons.  We  have  four- 
teen chickens  that  we  have  taken  "  to  halves."  I  don't  mean  that 
we  split  them  open  every  morning,  but  we  are  going  to  nurse  and 
nourish  them  all  summer  and  own  one-half  of  the  whole  number 
in  fee  simple.  Behold,  says  the  Shepherd  of  Salisbury  Plain,  the 
shifts  which  honest  poverty  will  make  rather  than  beg  or  steal  ! 
Besides,  we  have  eight  little  chickens  of  our  own  —  all  born,  and 
ever  so  many  more  that  are  going  to  be,  if  Fate  and  the  other 
hens  do  not  nip  them  in  the  shell.  Hitherto  Destiny  has  set  her 
face  against  them.  Their  mother  has  been  in  a  state  of  constant 
trepidation.  I  put  fifteen  eggs  under  her,  and  the  number  has 
gradually  risen  to  twenty-three  !  I  should  not  care  if  they  would 
all  turn  into  chickens,  but  that  nest  has  been  the  scene  of  so  many 
sharp  conflicts  that  I  fear  the  poor  little  yolks  have  not  had  peace 
enough  to  enable  them  to  shape  themselves  into  fuss  and  feathers. 
But  I  am  going  to  keep  Mother  Hen  on  it  until  all  hope  is  aban- 
doned, and  we  shall  see  what  we  shall  see.  .  .  . 

I  suspect  by  this  time  you  are  pretty  tired,  but  I  am  not  half 
done  yet.  Anybody  that  is  as  wise  as  I  am  knows  what  a  relief  it 
is  to  sit  down  sometimes  and  be  silly. 


LETTERS   OF   FRIENDSHIP  83 

3.  Write  (i)  a  letter  of  congratulation;  (2)  a  letter  of 
condolence. 

4.  [Take  either  a  or  b\ 

a.  Write  a  friend  about  an  interesting  book  you  are  read- 
ing. Tell  him  enough  to  excite  his  interest  without  satisfy- 
ing his  curiosity. 

/;.  In  a  letter  to  a  friend  write  all  you  have  learned  from 
this  chapter  about  letters  of  friendship. 

5.  In  a  letter  to  the  principal  of  the  school,  tell  what  you 
have  accomplished  so  far  this  year  in  each  of  your  studies. 
Pay  attention  to  [a)  paragraphing,  (/;)  sentence  structure, 
{c)  punctuation. 

Use  correspondence  paper  and  inclose  your  letter  in  a 
properly  directed  envelope. 

6.  [Take  either  a  or  /;]. 

a.  (i)  Write  for  a  letter  of  introduction  to  a  man  whom 
you  wish  to  meet  on  business.    (2)  Answer  your  letter. 

b.  (i)  Write  a  letter  of  introduction.    Your  friend 

is  to  be  in ,  a  distant  city,  for  a  fortnight,  and  you  wish 

her  to  meet  a  friend  of  yours  in  that  city.    (2)  Answer  your 
letter. 

7.  [Take  either  a  or  b\ 

a.  To  a  cousin  whom  you  have  never  seen,  write  a  faith- 
ful account  of  the  town  or  city  in  which  you  live.  Give  a 
paragraph  to  each  of  the  following  subjects  :  location,  indus- 
tries, educational  opportunities,  character  of  the  inhabitants. 

b.  Write  a  friend  who  runs  a  bookstore  whether  you 
think  there  is  a  good  opening  for  him  in  your  town  or  city, 
or  in  some  town  near  b}-.  He  will  be  interested  in  much  of 
the  matter  in  the  letter  )ou  have  just  written,  and  in  addi- 
tion will  wish  to  know  about  the  hcalthfulness  of  the  city. 


84  LETTER  WRiriNG 

the  value  of  property,  rents,  taxes,  the  cost  of  living,  rail- 
road facilities,  the  growth  of  the  city,  and  the  opportunity 
to  build  up  the  book  trade. 

47.  Formal  Notes.  A  note  that  is  written  in  the  third 
person  is  called  a  formal  note.  An  invitation  sent  out  by  a 
school,  a  class  in  the  school,  a  club,  or  any  group  of  per- 
sons is  likely  to  be  in  the  third  person  ;  and  we  must  re- 
member to  answer  it  in  the  third  person. 

Consider  every  detail  of  the  forms  given  below;  for  ex- 
ample, the  writing  of  the  full  word  instead  of  using  a  figure. 

1.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  William  Walker  request  the  pleasure  of  Mr. 
Henry  Green's  company  at  dinner  on  Thursday  evening,  May  the 
third,  at  seven  o'clock. 

1017  Avon  Street, 

April  twenty-seventh. 

2.  Mr.  Green  accepts  with  pleasure  Mr.  and  Mrs.  William 
Walker's  kind  invitation  to  dinner  on  Thursday  evening.  May  the 
third,  at  seven  o'clock. 

5  Williams  Street, 

April  twenty-eighth. 

3.  Mr.  Green  regrets  that  he  cannot  accept  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
William  Walker's  kind  invitation  to  dinner  on  Thursday  evening. 
May  the  third. 

5  Williams  Street, 

April  twenty-eighth. 

4.  The  Class  of  Nineteen  Hundred  and  Six 

Bristol  Conservatory  of  Music 

requests  the  honor  of  your  presence  at  the 

Commencement  Exercises 

'\\^ednesday,  June  the  twentieth 

at  two  o'clock 

Tremont  Temple 

Bristol 


FORMAL  NOTES  85 

5.  Mr.  William  H.  Brown  accepts  with  pleasure  the  kind  invita- 
tion of  the  Class  of  Nineteen  Hundred  and  Six,  Bristol  Conserva- 
tory of  Music,  to  attend  the  Commencement  Exercises,  Wednesday, 
June  the  twentieth,  at  two  o'clock,  in  Tremont  Temple. 

You  will  find  there  is  a  reason  for  every  bit  of  informa- 
tion given  in  both  invitations  and  replies.  Why  is  it  desir- 
able in  3  to  repeat  the  words  dinner,  Thttrsday  evening,  May 
the' third,  and  seven  o'clock?  In  answering  this  question, 
take  the  point  of  view  of  the  hostess. 

Do  not  say,  "  A  previous  engagement  zui/l  prevent."  One 
accepts  or  sends  regrets  at  the  time  of  writing. 

Your  is  used  in  4  for  the  reason  that  it  would  cost 
too  much  to  engrave  the  name  of  each  person  on  his 
invitation. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  a  formal  invitation  to  an  entertainment. 

2.  Accept  the  invitation  orally. 

3.  Decline  it  in  writing. 

48.  Informal  Notes.  Most  of  us  .seldom  have  occasion  to 
write  a  note  in  the  third  person.  We  prefer  to  write  in- 
formal notes  —  those  in  which  we  use  the  first  person.  Then 
instead  of  sending  the  message  in  a  ready-made  form,  each 
one" can  express  himself  in  his  own  way;  he  can  be  him- 
self.   For  example : 

Dear  Miss  Hall, 

Mother  and  I  are  hoping  that  you  can  spend 
Thursday  evening  with  us.  Of  course  we  shall  expect  you  to  dinner. 
You  have  not  forgotten  that  our  dinner  hour  is  half  past  six .? 

Cordially  yours, 

Ella  W.  Parker. 
25  Gray  Street,  Dorchester, 

Tuesday,  November  fifth. 


86  LEiri:R  wRriMNG 

EXERCISES 

1.  Accept  the  invitation  and  decline  it  in  writing. 

2.  What  characteristics  of  the  writer  come  out  in  the 
following  invitation  ?  How  many  indications  are  there  that 
she  wished  her  guests  to  come  and  to  come  with  the  ut- 
most ease  ?  Consider  the  note  addressed  to  you,  and  write 
a  reply. 

My  dear  Mr.  Brown, 

We  should  be  happy  to  have  you  and  your 
brother  come  down  next  Wednesday  and  stay  with  us  over  Sunday. 
A  train  that  leaves  Boston  at  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  reaches 
Providence  about  four  and  gives  ample  time  to  take  the  train  for 
Woodville  in  the  same  station  at  twenty  minutes  past  four.  Wood- 
ville  is  the  terminus  of  the  road,  and  our  cottage  is  close  to  the 
station. 

The  best  way  is  to  buy  a  five-trip  ticket  to  Providence,  - —  we 
can  easily  take  the  extra  ticket,  - —  then  a  round-trip  ticket  from 
Providence  to  Woodville.  You  will  need  your  tennis  racquets, 
and  the  bicycles  will  not  come  amiss.  We  have  at  least  one  extra 
bathing  suit.  .  .  .    You  may  be  sure  of  a  hearty  welcome. 

Very  sincerely  yours, 

Mary  Davis  Leighton. 
Woodville,  Rhode  Island, 
July  fifteenth. 

3.  Invite  your  English  teacher  to  dine  with  you  and 
spend  the  evening  at  your  home.  Make  it  clear  in  your 
note  that  you  have  consulted  your  mother  in  regard  to  the 
invitation. 

4.  Write  a  friend  in  order  to  show  him  that  you  appre- 
ciate the  good  time  he  gave  you  during  your  visit  at  his 
home. 


% 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE   COHERENT   PARAGRAPH 

49.  Coherence.  When  a  paragraph  has  a  single  main 
thought,  we  say  that  the  paragraph  has  unity,  or  that  it  is 
a  unit.  When  thoughts  take  their  places  in  a  natural  order, 
so  that  the  sentences  fit  together  closely,  we  say  that  the 
paragraph  has  coherence.  A  step  toward  unity  is  to  include 
no  details  except  those  which  have  a  bearing  on  the  para- 
graph topic.  A  step  toward  coherence  is  to  arrange  the 
details  in  a  natural  or  logical  order.  Sometimes  a  carefully 
worded  topic  sentence  is  the  best  guide  through  a  para- 
graph. Sometimes  connectives  help  us  show  the  relation 
of  one  sentence  to  another. 

50.  Connectives.  Whether  a  writer  uses  topic  sentences 
or  not,  he  will  often  need  conjunctions  and  conjunctive 
phrases,  such  as  :  hozvever,  yet,  then,  too,  hence,  fjtoreover, 
accordingly,  in  short,  also,  further,  nor,  bnt,  and,  on  the  con- 
trary, 'while,  on  the  other  hand,  still,  indeed,  therefore,  first, 
secondly,  and  fitially . 

A  connective  liable  to  be  overworked  is  and.  It  is  often 
used  to  fill  gaps,  as  and-cr  is  used  by  hesitant  pupils  in 
reciting.  We  should  think  twice  before  allowing  it  to  stand 
at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  or  a  paragraph,  and  in  revis- 
ing a  manuscript  we  should  cut  out  every  and  we  do  not 
absolutely  need. 

A  demonstrative  adjective,  used  with  a  noun,  frequently 
makes  a  good  connecting  link.    It  enables  the  writer  to 

87 


88  THE  COHERENT  PARAGRAPH 

repeat  a  word  or  an  idea  that  he  wishes  to  keep  before 
the  reader. 

EXERCISES 

1.  In  the  following  selections,  does  each  sentence  lead  up 
to  the  next  ?  Make  a  list  of  the  connectives.  Underscore 
all  demonstrative  adjectives  used  with  nouns. 

In  Franklin  Park 

I  was  in  Franklin  Park  this  morning  [February  25]  about  ten 
minutes  before  sunrise.  The  somewhat  pale  moon  was  still  shin- 
ing in  the  west,  while  the  eastern  horizon  and  the  clouds  above  it 
were  suffused  with  pink.  This  pink  grew  brighter  and  brighter 
until  it  became  golden.  Just  then  I  heard  a  single  half-suppressed 
caw,  and  turning  toward  the  westward  beheld  a  long  dark  line  of 
crows,  at  least  fifty,  pursuing  a  northerly  course.  The  loud  cries 
of  a  pair  of  blue  jays  resounded  from  a  group  of  cedar  trees  a  few 
minutes  after  the  sun  rose.  The  chickadees,  too,  were  early  risers 
and  three  hairy  woodpeckers  put  in  an  appearance  in  good  season. 
Squirrels,  both  red  and  gray,  were  numerous  and  at  one  time  I 
noticed  five  gray  fellows  in  a  single  pine  tree.  In  passing  a  low 
hedge  of  evergreens,  I  heard  a  chirp,  and  looking  carefully,  I  saw 
a  song  sparrow  perched  in  the  hedge.  I  tried  by  various  whistles 
and  bird  notes  to  get  him  to  sing  his  spring  song  to  me,  but  the 
only  response  he  would  give  was  a  melancholy  chirp  which  seemed 
to  mean  the  spring  had  not  yet  come. 

Our  Language 

At  court,  and  in  the  castles  of  the  great  nobles,  where  the 
pomp  and  state  of  a  court  was  emulated,  Norman-French  was 
the  only  language  employed ;  in  courts  of  law,  the  pleadings  and 
judgments  were  delivered  in  the  same  tongue.  In  short,  French 
was  the  language  of  honor,  of  chivalry,  and  even  of  justice ; 
while  the  far  more  manly  and  expressive  Anglo-Saxon  was  aban- 
doned to  the  use  of  rustics  and  hinds,  who  knew  no  other.    Still, 


CONNECTIVES  89 

however,  the  necessary  intercourse  between  the  lords  of  the 
soil,  and  those  oppressed  inferior  beings  by  whom  that  soil  was 
cultivated,  occasioned  the  gradual  formation  of  a  dialect,  com- 
pounded betwixt  the  French  and  the  Anglo-Saxon,  in  which  they 
could  render  themselves  mutually  intelligible  to  each  other ;  and 
from  this  necessity  arose  by  degrees  the  structure  of  our  present 
English  language,  in  which  the  speech  of  the  victors  and  ^  the 
vanquished  have  been  so  happily  blended  together ;  and  which 
has  since  been  so  richly  improved  by  importations  from  the 
classical  languages,  and  from  those  spoken  by  the  southern 
nations  of  Europe.  —  Scott,  "  Ivanhoe." 

The  Lingering  Daylight 

By  this  time  the  sun  had  gone  down,  and  was  tinting  the 
clouds  towards  the  zenith  with  those  bright  hues  which  are  not 
seen  there  until  some  time  after  sunset,  and  when  the  horizon 
has  quite  lost  its  richer  brilliancy.  The  moon,  too,  .  .  .  These 
silvery  beams  .  .  .  They  softened  .  .  .  With  the  lapse  of  every 
moment,  the  garden  grew  more  picturesque  .  .  .  The  common- 
place characteristics  .  .  .  were  now  transfigured  by  a  charm  of 
romance.  A  hundred  mysterious  years  were  whispering  among 
the  leaves.  .  .  .  Through  the  foliage  that  roofed  the  little  sum- 
mer-house the  moonlight  flickered  to  and  fro,  and  fell  silvery 
white  on  the  dark  floor,  the  table,  and  the  circular  bench,  with 
a  continual  shift  and  play,  according  as  the  chinks  and  wayward 
crevices  among  the  twigs  admitted  or  shut  out  the  glimmer.  — 
Hawthorne,  "The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables." 

2.  Insert  these  connectives  in  their  proper  places  in  the 
following  paragraph  :  in  sJiort,  and  lastly,  for  one  thing, 
for  another. 

People  had  no  fancy  for  amateur  explosions .    it  did 

not  clearly  appear  that  it  was  legal.    it  seemed  a  somewhat 

1  The  sentence  would  Ije  improved  b}'  the  insertion  of  "  that  of." 


90  THE   COHERENT  PARAGRAPH 

advanced  example  of  civilization  lo  set  before  barbarians.    The 
matter became  a  storm. 

3.  Write  a  paragraph  in  which  you  use  one  of  the  follow- 
ing sentences  as  an  opening  sentence  : 

1.  He  had  plenty  to  do  through  the  next  hour. 

2.  I  sauntered  to  the  window  and  stood  gazing  at  the  people 
picking  their  way  to  church. 

3.  All  was  now  bustle  and  hubbub  in  the  late  quiet  schoolroom. 

4.  Dinner  time  came. 

5.  His  heart  opened  wide  to  real  distress. 

4.  Exchange  papers  and  test  their  coherence.  Mark 
O  opposite  any  sentence  which  should  be  omitted,  and  C 
against  any  lack  of  connection. 

5.  Explain  the  working  of  some  machine  or  instrument, 
or  the  process  of  doing  something.  First  prepare  a  list  of 
topics.  As  you  revise,  test  the  coherence  of  your  paragraph, 
or  paragraphs. 

6.  Give  an  account  of  some  recent  experience.  Write 
rapidly.  Think  of  your  subject,  not  of  how  you  are  writing. 
Revise  in  order  to  secure  coherence. 

7.  Exchange  papers  and  criticise  as  before. 


CHAPTER   IX 
THE  EMPHATIC  PARAGRAPH 

51.  Emphasis  through  Position.  When  a  man  makes  a 
speech,  he  naturally  begins  in  a  way  that  will  attract  and 
hold  the  attention  of  his  audience.  If  in  the  course  of  his 
talk  he  at  times  grows  less  interesting,  when  he  comes  to 
the  conclusion  he  rouses  himself  to  leave  a  lasting  impres- 
sion. As  the  closing  words  naturally  linger  longest  in  the 
ears  of  the  listeners,  we  may  say  that  the  most  important 
part  of  the  speech  is  the  end.  The  part  of  next  importance 
is  the  beginning.  So  it  is  with  a  book,  a  chapter,  a  para- 
graph, and  a  sentence.  What  first  strikes  the  eye  of  the 
reader  will  repel  or  attract ;  the  image  that  is  last  to  leave 
his  eye  he  will  be  most  likely  to  remember.  We  may  say, 
therefore,  that  the  last  sentence  in  a  paragraph  is  in  the 
most  conspicuous  position,  and  that  the  first  sentence  is  in 
the  position  of  second  importance  ;  that  the  last  words  in  a 
sentence  are  by  position  the  most  emphatic,  and  that  the 
opening  words  are  only  less  emphatic. 

Let  us,  then,  look  to  the  beginning  and  the  ending  of 
our  paragraphs.  In  self-defense  we  need  to  attend  to  this 
matter  of  emphasis  ;  otherwise  the  reader  will  lay  stress  on 
what  we  consider  of  slight  importance. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Point  out  the  importance  of  the  opening  and  the  closing 
sentence  of  the  following  paragraph.  What  is  the  purpose 
of  each  .? 

QI 


92  THE   EMPHATIC   PARAGRAPH 

Our  Most  Pkkcious  Resources 

If  I  were  to  name  the  three  most  precious  resources  of  hfe,  I 
should  say  books,  friends,  and  nature ;  and  the  greatest  of  these, 
at  least  the  most  constant  and  always  at  hand,  is  nature.  Nature 
we  have  always  with  us,  an  inexhaustible  storehouse  of  that  which 
moves  the  heart,  appeals  to  the  mind,  and  fires  the  imagination 
—  health  to  the  body  and  joy  to  the  soul.  To  the  scientist  nature 
is  a  storehouse  of  facts,  laws,  processes ;  to  the  artist  she  is  a 
storehouse  of  pictures ;  to  the  poet  she  is  a  storehouse  of  images, 
fancies,  a  source  of  inspiration  ;  to  the  moralist  she  is  a  store- 
house of  precepts  and  parables  ;  to  all  she  may  be  a  source  of 
knowledge  and  joy.  —  Burroughs,  "  The  Art  of  Seeing  Things." 

2.  Construct  a  paragraph  of  your  own  in  a  sunilar  way. 
You  may  write  on  the  three  most  desirable  traits  in  a  boy 
or  a  girl,  on  the  three  most  attractive  ways  of  spending 
leisure  time,  or  on  any  other  subject. 

3.  Arrange  the  following  sentences  so  that  they  shall 
make  a  paragraph  which  has  unity,  coherence,  and  em- 
phasis. 

But  there  was  both  luster  and  depth  in  her  eyes. 

Neither  did  her  face  —  with  the  brown  ringlets  on  either  side, 
and  the  slightly  piquant  nose,  and  the  wholesome  bloom,  and  the 
clear  shade  of  tan,  and  the  half  a  dozen  freckles,  friendly  remem- 
brances of  the  April  sun  and  breeze  ■ —  precisely  give  us  a  right  to 
call  her  beautiful. 

She  shocked  no  canon  of  taste  ;  she  was  admirably  in  keeping 
with  herself,  and  never  jarred  against  surrounding  circumstances. 

She  was  very  pretty ;  as  graceful  as  a  bird,  and  graceful  much 
in  the  same  way ;  as  pleasant  about  the  house  as  a  gleam  of  sun- 
shine falling  on  the  floor  through  a  shadow  of  twinkling  leaves, 
or  as  a  ray  of  firelight  that  dances  on  the  wall  while  evening  is 
drawing  nigh. 


POSITION  AND   PROPORTION  93 

Her  figure,  to  be  sure,  —  so  small  as  to  be  almost  childlike, 
and  so  elastic  that  motion  seemed  as  easy  or  easier  to  it  than 
rest,  —  Avould  hardly  have  suited  one's  idea  of  a  countess. 

52.  Emphasis  through  Proportion.  If  you  were  to  talk 
for  ten  minutes  to  thirty  younger  boys  and  girls,  you  would 
probably  spend  most  of  your  time  on  what  you  considered 
the  most  important  or  most  interesting  topic.  In  the  same 
way,  to  give  proper  emphasis  to  the  more  important  details 
of  a  paragraph,  you  give  them  sufficient  space. 

EXERCISES 

1.  In  the  following  extract  from  a  journal,  what  detail 
did  the  writer  wish  to  emphasize  most  ?  Did  he  secure  the 
emphasis  by  giving  this  suggestion  the  most  space,  or  the 
best  position,  or  both  .? 

Timely  Suggestions  on  Bird  Study 

If  one  is  going  to  study  birds  this  year,  he  should  begin  at 
once  [February  23],  so  as  to  know  all  the  species  that  are  now 
here,  for  within  two  weeks  new  birds  will  begin  to  arrive  and  in 
six  weeks  we  shall  have  thirty  more  species.  There  are  many 
important  things  which  are  much  easier  to  learn  now  than  later 
in  the  season.  Get  between  the  sun  and  your  bird;  otherwise 
you  will  not  be  able  to  tell  a  scarlet  tanager  from  a  robin.  Do 
not  puzzle  over  shy,  small,  sober-colored  birds  at  first;  confine 
yourself  to  those  having  marked  characteristics.  Learn  the  songs 
of  as  many  birds  as  you  can.  Make  notes  on  everything  you 
observe ;  you  cannot  make  too  many,  provided  they  are  accurate. 
Above  all  things  never  hurry.  Identify  your  birds  with  caution ; 
be  sure  you  are  right.  Never  raise  even  your  glasses  hurriedly, 
for  many  shy  birds  will  be  frightened  away  by  the  flash  of  the 
sun  upon  the  lens.    When  in  search  of  birds  pause  frequently 


94  THE  EMPHATIC   PARAGRAPH 

and  you  will  see  and  hear  much  that  would  otherwise  escape  you. 
Therefore  the  motto  of  the  successful  ornithologist  should  be, 
"  Slow  and  sure." 

2.  Write  a  paragraph  in  which  you  try  to  secure  empha- 
sis both  by  proportion  and  by  position.  First  make  a  list 
of  topics.  You  may  give  suggestions  in  regard  to  doing 
something  which  you  know  very  well  how  to  do. 

3.  Prepare  lists  of  topics  on  the  following  subjects  from 
"  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans  "  : 

I.  The  Night  in  the  Cave.  2.  A  Character  Sketch  of 
Hawkeye.  3.  The  Basest  Character.  4.  The  Weakest 
Character.  (Compare  at  least  two  characters.)  5.  David 
Gamut's  Good  Qualities. 

4.  Write  on  one  of  these  five  subjects. 

5.  Exchange  papers,  and  write  in  a  single  sentence  the 
thought  which  you  consider  the  most  important  in  each 
paragraph  you  examine. 

6.  Write  Theme  VIII  (in  the  notebook)  on  one  of  the 
following  subjects  :  Caring  for  Plants  ;  Setting  the  Table 
for  Dinner  ;  Managing  a  Canoe  ;  Enjo)ing  a  Boat ;  Learn- 
ing to  Swim. 

7.  Exchange  themes  and  write  on  paper  what  you 
consider  the  main  thought  of  each  paragraph  and  of  the 
theme  as  a  whole.  Point  out  any  good  connectives,  and 
any  lack  of  connection.  How,  if  at  all,  is  emphasis 
secured  } 

8.  Give  an  account  of  one  of  your  recent  experiences. 
Write  in  a  simple,  straightforward  way  as  rapidly  as  you 
can.  In  revising,  test  the  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis 
of  the  paragraph  or  paragraphs.  Copy  in  the  notebook  as 
Theme  IX. 


POSITION   AND   PROPORTION  95 

9.  Exchange  themes  and  criticise  (i)  form,  (2)  sentence 
structure,  (3)  punctuation,  (4)  spehing,  (5)  emphasis  (as  in 
Exercise  7). 

10.  Write  Theme  X  on  any  subject  you  please. 

11.  Exchange  notebooks  and,  as  examiner  of  Theme  X, 
answer  these  questions  : 

1 .  Is  the  theme  interesting  ?  adequate  ?  to  the  point  ? 

2.  Is  the  subject  sufficiently  limited  ? 

3.  Can  you  suggest  a  more  suitable  title  ? 

4.  Criticise  as  in  Exercise  7. 

12.  Write  as  Theme  XI  an  account  of  to-day's  recitation  in 
English.  See  that  your  report  is  (i)  adequate  and  (2)  to  the 
point.  Make  it  a  valuable  record  to  any  pupil  who  is  absent 
to-day,  or  to  a  pupil  who  may  enter  the  school  after  to-day. 

13.  Exchange  notebooks  and,  as  examiner  of  Theme  XI, 
answer  the  following  questions  : 

1.  Is  it  interesting.?  Point  out  what  you  like  best  in 
the  work. 

2.  Is  it  adequate.?  Make  a  note  of  any  topics  which  in 
your  opinion  should  be  included. 

3.  Is  it  to  the  point  .?  Make  an  O  in  the  margin  against 
any  sentence  which  had  better  be  omitted. 

4.  Can  you  suggest  any  improvements  in  (i)  form,  (2) 
sentence  structure,  (3)  punctuation,  (4)  spelling,  (5)  unity, 
(6)  coherence,  or  (7)  emphasis .? 

14.  Write  as  Theme  XII  the  substance  of  what  you 
have  learned  about  writing  themes. 

15.  Write  in  your  notebook  at  least  twice  a  week  for  a 
fortnight.  Bring  your  notebook  to  every  English  recitation, 
so  that  you  can  get  and  give  help  in  finding  subjects  and  in 
writing  about  them. 


96  THE  EMPHATIC   PARAGRAPH 

16.  Discuss  the  emphasis  of  the  following  paragraph  : 

The  mammy  was  the  zealous,  faithful,  and  efficient  assistant 
of  the  mistress  in  all  that  pertained  to  the  training  of  the  chil- 
dren. Her  authority  was  recognized  in  all  that  related  to  them 
directly  or  indirectly,  second  only  to  that  of  the  mistress  and 
master.  She  regulated  them,  disciplined  them,  having  authority 
indeed  in  cases  to  administer  correction.  Her  regime  extended 
frequently  through  two  generations,  occasionally  through  three. 
From  their  infancy  she  was  the  careful  and  faithful  nurse,  the 
affection  between  her  and  the  children  she  nursed  being  often 
more  marked  than  that  between  her  and  her  own  children.  She 
may  have  been  harsh  to  the  latter ;  she  was  never  anything  but 
tender  with  the  others.  Her  authority  was,  in  a  measure,  recog- 
nized through  life,  for  her  devotion  was  unquestionable.  The 
young  masters  and  mistresses  were  her  "  children "  long  after 
they  had  children  of  their  own.  They  embraced  her,  when  they 
parted  from  her  or  met  with  her  again  after  separation,  with  the 
same  affection  as  when  in  childhood  she  "  led  them  smiling  into 
sleep."  She  was  worthy  of  the  affection.  ■  At  all  times  she  was 
their  faithful  ally,  shielding  them,  excusing  them,  petting  them, 
aiding  them,  yet  holding  them  up  to  a  certain  high  accountability. 
Her  influence  was  always  for  good.  She  received,  as  she  gave, 
an  unqualified  affection ;  if  she  was  a  slave,  she  at  least  was  not 
a  servant,  but  was  an  honored  member  of  the  family,  universally 
beloved,  universally  cared  for  —  "the  Mammy."  —  Thomas  Nel- 
son Page,  "The  Old  South." 

17.  Test  the  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis  of  the  two 
paragraphs  quoted  in  the  following  note  ;  and  if  they  are 
imperfect,  rewrite  them. 

NOTK.  If  the  class  makes  such  good  progress  that  the  teacher 
thinks  best  to  call  for  more  than  two  themes  a  week,  you  will  have  so 
much  more  material  to  which  to  apply  the  principles  of  composition 
as  you  criticise  3-our  own  work  and  that  of  others.  The  criticisms  you 
get  from  yovu'  classmates,  supplemented  by  whatever  suggestions  the 


POSITION   AND   PROPORTION  97 

teacher  has  time  to  give,  should  be  very  valuable.  Whether  your 
critics  read  your  work,  or  you  read  it  to  them,  they  will  look  for  the 
good  features  as  well  as  for  the  faults  ;  but  by  pointing  out  your  most 
conspicuous  faults  they  will  do  you  a  great  sendee. 

Remember  that  your  world  is  full  of  subjects.   Two  boys  have  given 
the  following  suggestions  about  finding  something  on  which  to  write : 

1.  In  going  to  and  from  school  I  try  to  notice  every  little 
thing  I  see.  When  I  get  home  at  night  I  sum  up  what  I  have 
seen  through  the  day  and  write  it.  If  I  am  reading  some  book, 
I  express  my  opinion  on  it.  I  think  boys  living  in  the  country 
have  an  equal  chance  with  the  boys  who  live  in  the  city,  as  they 
see  more  things  which  God  created ;  for  instance,  the  woods, 
birds,  and  animals. 

2.  I  think  that  if  a  person  keeps  his  e3'es  wide  open  and 
listens  to  all  he  hears,  he  is  very  sure  of  finding  at  least  one 
subject  to  write  about  each  clay.  For  instance,  Monday  I  saw 
a  cab  in  a  predicament ;  Tuesday  I  saw  a  train  blocked  by 
snow ;  Wednesday  I  wrote  about  my  reading ;  Thursday  I  saw 
a  freight  car  put  on  the  track;  Friday  I  saw  a  boy  fall  and 
hurt  himself;  Saturday  I  saw  a  woman  have  a  narrow  escape 
from  being  run  over.  It  is  like  that.  I  come  to  school  on  a  train 
and  watch  all  around  for  incidents.  Sometimes  I  ride  home  on 
the  electric  cars  and  have  a  good  opportunity  to  see  things. 
Everybody  has  time  and  must  use  it  in  some  way. 

If  nothing  of  interest  happens  on  your  way  to  or  from  school, 
remember  that  you  are  always  at  liberty  to  write  a  secretary's  re- 
port of  a  recitation.  Remember,  too,  that  the  number  of  enjoyable 
books  is  legion  —  books  on  which  you  may  write  freely  and  fully, 
noting  details  that  you  like,  judging  the  work  as  a  whole,  and  mak- 
ing such  comparisons  and  contrasts  as  naturally  occur  to  you.  In 
handling  such  materials  be  sure  that  you  give  your  honest  opinions 
with  absolute  frankness.    Think  for  yourself;  don't  be  a  prig. 

As  for  what  goes  on  about  you,  whether  the  thoughts  suggested  by 
the  call  of  a  street  hawker,  or  by  the  sound  of  a  hurdy-gurdy  under 
the  window,  are  interesting  or  not,  nobody  else  will  have  the  same 
thoughts.  Your  notebook  is  to  be  a  record  of  your  experiences,  your 
impressions,  your  opinions. 


CHAPTER   X 
THE   CORRECT    SENTENCE 

"  It  is  not  so  much  a  merit  to  know  English  as  it  is  a  shame  not  to 
know  it." 

Why  is  it  that  a  boy  enjoys  taking  a  bicycle  apart  ? 
Possibly  one  reason  is  that  some  clay  it  may  be  convenient 
to  know  how  the  parts  go  together.  Now  a  boy's  sen- 
tences, like  his  bicycle,  sometimes  need  repairs  ;  and  if  he 
is  to  do  his  own  repairing,  he  must  know  how  the  parts 
of  the  sentence  go  together.  Should  he  have  occasion  to 
make  bicycles,  he  would  need  to  study  with  the  utmost 
patience  the  construction  of  such  machines.  He  is  bound 
to  make  sentences,  and  the  sensible  way  to  learn  how  to 
make  them  is  to  see  how  the  best  writers  have  made  them. 
The  parts  of  which  sentences  are  composed  are  words,  — 
called  the  parts  of  speech,  —  phrases,  and  clauses. 

53.  The  Parts  of  Speech.  The  parts  of  speech,  eight  in 
number,  are  the  following  : 

Noun.  A  noun  is  a  word  used  as  a  name  of  a  person, 
place,  or  thing. 

Proiiouji.  A  pro-noun  is  a  word  which  stands  for  a  noun.^ 

Adjective.  An  ad-jective  is  a  word  used  to  describe  or 
limit  a  noun  or  pronoun  —  a  description  added  to  a 
noun  or  pronoun. 

Verb.  A  verb  is  a  word  used  to  assert  something  of  a 
person,  place,  or  thing. 

1  Your  teacher  will  explain  liow  the  etymology  reveals  the  meaning  of  these  words. 


THE   PARTS  OF  SPEECH  99 

Adverb.   An  ad-verb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  mean- 
ing of  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb. 
Preposition.   A   pre-position    is   a   word  placed   before   a 
noun  or  pronoun  to  show  the  relation   between   it 
and  some  other  word  or  words  in  the  sentence. 
Conjunction.   A  con-junction  is  a  word  used  to  Join  sen- 
tences or  parts  of  sentences. 
Interjection.  An  inter-jection  is  a  word  used  to  express 
surprise,  anger,   pleasure,  or  some  other  feeling  or 
emotion.    It  is  throivn  into  the  midst  of  other  words, 
but  has  little  connection  with  them. 
54.  The  Fle:iibility  of  Parts  of  Speech.    In  our  study  of 
the  relation  between  words  we  must  not  forget  that  a  word 
is  sometimes  one  part  of  speech,  sometimes  another.    For 
example,  in  the  sentences  that  follow  notice  the  part  of 
speech  of  each  word  in  italics. 

1.  We  heard  the  dinner  bell.    (Noun  used  as  adjective.) 

2.  The  race  is  not  always  to  the  swift.  (Adjective  used  as  noun.) 

3.  In  the  expression  "between  you  and  me,"  7ne  is  the  object 
of  the  preposition.    (Pronoun  used  as  noun.) 

4..  Was  is  not  is.    (Verbs  used  as  nouns.) 

5.  Less  usually  refers  to  quantity  in  general ;  fewer  to  number. 

6.  Walking  is  good  e.xercise.    (Noun  formed  from  verb.) 

7.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  \\\m.    (Infinitive  used  as  noun.) 

8.  He  knows  all  the  ins  and  outs  of  the  business. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Use  the  following  words  as  (i)  nouns  and  "(2)  verbs  : 
breakfast,  work,  hope,  fear. . 

2.  Use  the  words  run,  pull,  flock,  in,  ?//,  down,  and  any 
others  you  please,  to  illustrate  the  principle  that,  in  order 
to  determine  what  part  of  speech  a  word  is,  wc  must  know 
its  relation  to  other  words  in  the  sentence. 


lOO        THE  CORRECT  SENTENCE 

NOUNS 

55.  Kinds  of  Nouns.  A  noun  is  either  proper  {one's  ozvn 
name,  Fred)  or  common  (a  name  common  to  a  class  of 
objects,  table).  Three  varieties  of  common  nouns  deserve 
special  mention  : 

collective  nouns,  —  names  of  groups  (school,  class,  family, 
group,  company); 

abstract  nouns,  —  names  of  qualities,  or  attributes,  sepa- 
rated from  the  objects  that  possess  them  (kindness, 
honesty,  distance,  truth) ;  and 

verbal  nouns,  —  names  of  actions.  They  are  formed  from 
verbs  (walking,  seeing,  to  walk,  to  see). 

56.  Declension  of  Nouns.  A  word  that  undergoes  a 
slight  change  of  form  in  order  to  show  a  change  in  its 
meaning,  or  to  enable  it  to  be  used  with  other  words,  is 
said  to  be  inflected.  Nouns  are  inflected  to  show  differ- 
ences in  number  and  case.  Such  an  inflection  of  a  noun  is 
called  a  declension. 

57.  Number.  Nouns  change  their  form  in  order  to  show 
whether  they  indicate  one  person  or  thing  {singular  num- 
ber), or  more  than  one  {plural  number).  To  this  rule  a 
few  nouns  are  exceptions.  In  deciding  whether  to  use  one 
of  these  nouns  as  singular  or  as  plural,  we  must  go  by  the 
meaning. 

Athletics,  used  to  include  several  sports  or  exercises,  is 
frequently  plural.  P^olitics,  as  the  name  of  a  profession,  is 
singular.  Matlicmatics,  as  the  name  of  a  science,  is  singular. 

Some  nouns,  however,  are  always  plural ;  for  example, 
assets,  bellows,  dregs,  eaves,  pincers,  scissors,  tidings. 
{Aru's  is  singular.) 


NOUNS 


lOI 


In  forming  the  plurals  of  proper  names,  we  say  the 
Messrs.  Johnson,  the  Misses  Walker. 

The  fundamental  part  of  a  compound  word  takes  the 
plural  ending ;  for  example,  motJiers-in-law,  men-of-zvar. 
Two  spoons  full  calls  attention  to  the  spoons  ;  two  spoon- 
fuls, to  the  measure. 

Plurals  of  Foreign  Nouns.  There  is  a  tendency  to  form 
the  plurals  of  foreign  nouns  as  if  they  were  English. 
Most  nouns  that  retain  foreign  plurals  are  from  the  Greek 
or  the  Latin.  The  following,  which  are  confusing  to  per- 
sons who  have  not  studied  these  languages,  are  worth 
remembering.    Some  of  them  have  two  plurals. 


Singular 


Plural 


I. 

nouns  in  a 

alumna 

alumnjE  (feminine) 

nebula 

nebuht; 

2. 

nouns  in  7is 

alumnus 

alumni  (masculine) 

fungus 

fungi  or  funguses 

focus 

foci 

radius 

radii 

genius 

(  geniuses  (talented  persons) 
(  genii  (spirits) 

3- 

nouns  in  ic/n 

datum 

data 

stratum 

strata 

curriculum 

curricula 

• 

bacterium 

bacteria 

4- 

nouns  in  is 

analysis 

analyses 

basis 

bases 

crisis 

crises 

oasis 

oases 

parenthesis 

parentheses 

S- 

nouns  in  ex  or  ix 

appendix 

appendices  or  appendixes 

index 

i  indexes  (in  books) 
■(■indices  (in  algebra) 

I02  THE   CORRECT  Sl'NTl^NCE 

EXERCISES 

1.  Compose  sentences  in  which  these  words  are  used 
with  verbs  in  the  singular  number :  athletics,  politics, 
mathematics,  news. 

2.  Compose  sentences  in  which  these  words  are  used 
with  verbs  in  the  plural  number  :  assets,  bellows,  dregs, 
eaves,  pincers,  scissors,  tidings. 

58.  Case.  Case  is  the  form  of  a  noun  (or  pronoun)  which 
shows  its  relation  to  other  words  in  the  sentence,  —  its  con- 
struction. Nouns  have  the  same  form  in  the  nominative  and 
the  objective  case,  but  a  different  form  for  the  possessive. 

59.  The  Nominative  Case.  Nouns  in  the  nominative  case 
have  several  constructions  : 

1.  The  subject  of  a  verb.    (The  boat  moves.) 

2.  Predicate  nominative.    (It  is  a  box^j 

3.  In  apposition  with  another  noun  in  the  nominative 
case.    (Bob,  my  dog,  is  coming.) 

4.  In  direct  address.    {Mary,  where  are  you  1) 

5.  Nominative  absolute.  {Dinner  being  ready,  we  sat 
down.) 

60.  The  Objective  Case.  Nouns  in  the  objective  case 
have  several  constructions  : 

1.  The  object  of  a  verb.    (He  broke  the  cJihniiey.) 

2.  The  indirect  object  of  a  verb.  (He  gave  the  dog  a 
lesson.) 

3.  The  objective  complement.  (They  chose  him /r-fi-/^*?;//.) 

4.  In  apposition  with  another  noun  in  the  objective  case. 
(He  saw  Edward,  the  king  of  England.) 

5.  The  object  of  a  preposition.     (We  go  to  school) 

6.  The  adverbial  noun.    (He  walked  a  long  distance) 


NOUNS  103 

7.  The  subject  of  an  infinitive.     (He  got  the  boy  to  go.) 
61.  The  Possessive  Case.    The  Anglo-Saxons  had  inflec- 
tions which  we  lack.     For  example,  the  noun  man,  which 
they  spelled  mann,  had  the  following  case  endings  in  the 

singular  number  : 

Avf/iinative,  mann. 

Gem'iive,  mannes. 

Dative,  menn. 

Instead  of  writing  the  genitive,  or  possessive,  mannes, 
we  have  long  been  in  the  habit  of  dropping  the  e  and  sub- 
stituting an  apostrophe.  The  point  is  that  we  are  to  think 
of  the  ' s  as  a  case  ending  that  belongs  to  the  nouns  in  the 
possessive  case.  Hence  our  best  way  is  to  write  the  entire 
word  and  then  add  the  's\  for  example,  _A^//;^'jr,  Charles's, 
Dickens 's,  Burns 's. 

If,  however,  it  pleases  the  ear  to  drop  the  second  s,  we 
may  do  so.  Many,  although  perhaps  not  the  most  careful 
writers,  prefer  James',  Dickens',  Burns' .  All  would  agree, 
probably,  in  saying  for  old  acquaintance'  sake,  for  con- 
science' sake. 

So  much  for  the  possessive  singular.  To  form  the  pos- 
sessive plural  we  add  merely  the  apostrophe  to  the  regular 
plural  in  s  ;  for  example,  the  boys'  hats,  the  girls'  drazvings. 
When,  however,  the  plural  does  not  end  in  s,  we  add  's : 
as,  sheep's,  oxen's. 

We  form  the  possessive  case  of  a  compound  noun  by 
adding  the  ' s  or  the  apostrophe  at  the  end ;  for  example, 
mother-in-law 's. 

The  same  principle  applies  to  groups  of  nouns  ;  for 
example,  Lincoln  and  Davis's  goods,  the  New  HampsJnre 
Fire  Insurance  Company 's  recoj'd.  Weeks  and  Potter 's  store. 


I04         THE  CORRECT  SENTENCE 

But  it  is  often  smoother  to  use  of  \  for  example,  tJie  state- 
ment of  the  governor  of  MassacJutsetts,  rather  than  tlic  gov- 
ernor of  MassaeJiHsetts   statement. 

This  case  denotes  ownership,  or  possession,  and  is  al- 
most always  used  with  reference  to  persons  or  animals. 
Wc  say  the  Presidenf s  message,  but  tJie  President  of  the 
United  States,  not  the  United  States'  President.  In  connec- 
tion with  nouns  that  denote  inanimate  things,  we  use  of. 

Note.  Anybody  else's  vote  seems  to  have  better  authority  than 
anybody's  else  vote.  We  often  think  of  the  adjective  else  as  a  part  of 
the  noun  anybody.  If,  however,  our  ear  prompts  us  to  say  anybody's 
else  at  the  end  of  a  clause  or  sentence,  we  should  feel  free  to  do  so. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  the  possessive  case,  singular  and  plural,  of  : 
man,  sheep,  deer,  ox ;  the  possessive  case  of :  Holmes, 
Jones,  man-of-war,  James  the  First. 

2.  In  the  following  instances  tell  whether  you  prefer 
the  possessive  case  or  the  possessive  phrase,  and  why : 

The  ocean's  roar,  the  whistle  of  the  engine,  the  woman's 
shriek,  the  bicycle's  gear,  Roosevelt's  administration,  the  admin- 
istration of  the  war  department. 

3.  Point  out  the  difference  in  meaning  between  the  fol- 
lowing.   May  any  of  them  be  interpreted  in  two  ways } 

1.  Taylor  and  Reed's  goods.  Taylor's  and  Reed's  goods. 

2.  Washington's  memory.  The  memory  of  Washington. 

3.  The  governor's  welcome.  The  welcome  of  the  governor. 

4.  My  friend's  entertaining  is  The  entertaining  of  my  friend 

always  successful.  is  a  pleasure  to  me. 

62.  Gender.  Gender  is  distinction  of  sex.  The  gender 
of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  a  male  being  is  tnasculine ; 


PRONOUNS  105 

that  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  a  female  being,  fevi- 
ininc ;  and  thiat  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  an  inani- 
mate object,  neuter  ("neither"). 

Some  nouns,  as  god,  goddess,  hero,  heroine,  host,  hostess, 
master,  mistress,  priest,  priestess,  prince,  princess,  change 
their  form  to  show  gender  ;  but  such  nouns  as  author,  'poet, 
doctor,  editor,  and  instructor  answer  for  women  as  well  as 
for  men. 

PRONOUNS 

63.  Antecedent.  A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  ante- 
cedent, the  noun  or  pronoun  that  goes  before  it  and  for 
which  it  stands,  in  person,  number,  and  gender.  Its  case 
depends  upon  the  clause  in  which  it  stands. 

Joh/t,  ivJioni  you  know  well,  is  coming  to-day. 
Mary,  who  has  such  a  fine  voice,  is  due  to-morrow. 

We  sometimes  need  to  consider  carefully  which  word  is 
antecedent.  For  example,  in  the  sentence,  '^This  is  one 
of  the  things  that  feed  the  night  fears  of  the  natives," 
there  may  be  several  things  that  feed  the  fears.  Things  is 
the  antecedent.  From  the  group  of  things  that  feed  we  con- 
sider one.  Compare  "  He  is  one  of  the  men  who  admire 
you."  Change  the  order  and  you  will  see  more  clearly  : 
''  Of  the  men  who  admire  you,  he  is  one." 

EXERCISES 

1.   Discuss  the  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences  : 

I.  If  one  should  make  a  col-  If  one  should  put  in  a  book 

lection  of  all  the  stories  that  he  all  the  stories  that  they  hear  in 

hears   in    the   cars,    he   would  the  cars,  they  would  soon  have 

soon  have  an  entertaining  book  an  entertaining  book  when  they 

when  he  has  the  blues.  have  the  blues. 


I06  THE   CORRl'XT  SEN'JKNCE 

2.  If  any  one  wishes  to  go  with  me,  let  him  [them]  say  so 
at  once. 

3.  I  wish  everybody  would  attend  to  own  affairs. 

4.  Neither  of  them  knows  [know]  what  he  is  talking  about. 

5.  Every  member  of  the  class  gives  [give]  his  [their]  opinion 
without  hesitation. 

2.  Find  or  write  sentences  in  which  r^r/j  onr,  everybody, 
and  man  after  man  (all  singular,  grammatically)  are  used 
as  antecedents. 

3.  Discuss  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  A  plant  stood  on  the  table  which  looked  as  if  it  needed  water. 

2.  A  plant  which  looked  as  if  it  needed  water  stood  on  the  table. 

3.  A  plant  which  stood  on  the  table  looked  as  if  it  needed  water. 

4.  A  tin  can  was  tied  to  the  dog's  tail,  which  made  a  racket 
every  time  it  struck  the  ground. 

5.  It  is  one  of  those  fanciful  tales  that  have  their  [has  its] 
own  little  world. 

6.  Jessica  is  one  of  the  few  characters  in  literature  who  forsake 
their  [forsakes  her]  Jewish  faith. 

7.  He  married  one  of  those  women  who  [always  says]  always 
say  the  right  thing  at  the  right  time. 

64.  Ambiguity.  Sometimes  a  careless  use  of  pronouns 
leads  to  ambiguity  or  absurdity  ;  for  example,  ''  He  told 
us  he  would  see  him  in  the  afternoon  if  he  thought  best." 
We  must  make  it  absolutely  clear  to  whom  the  pronoun 
refers. 

EXERCISE 

Discuss  the  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  Michael  Banim  survived  his  brother  many  years,  but  wrote 
nothing  of  value  after  his  death. 

2.  They  murder  C?esar  and  the  people  remain  on  their  side 
until  Antony  wins  them  over  by  a  wonderful  speech  at  his  funeral. 


PRONOUNS  107 

3.  Brutus  kills  himself  and  Antony  shows  his  generous  nature 
by  bringing  out  his  good  qualities  as  he  lies  dead. 

4.  His  brother  asked  him  to  bring  him  his  racket. 

65.  The  Case  of  a  Pronoun.  It  i«  sometimes  difficult  to 
determine  the  case  of  a  pronoun,  especially  when  a  paren- 
thetical expression  follows  a  relative  pronoun.  A  pupil 
wrote,  "  We  should  vote  for  the  person  whom  we  think  is 
best  fitted  for  the  position,"  but  clearly  he  should  have 
said,  (i)  "who  we  think  is  best  fitted,"  or  (2)  "whom  we 
think  best  fitted."  In  (i)  "who"  is  the  subject  of  "is 
fitted."  '(2)  is  equivalent  to  "whom  we  think  to  be  best 
fitted";  therefore  "whom"  is  in  the  objective  case,  the 
subject  of  the  infinitive  "to  be  fitted."  (So,  "We  think 
/lim  to  be  fitted  "  ;  "I  asked  ///;;/  to  speak  to  inc.")  The 
pupil  would  have  avoided  the  error  had  he  put  the  par- 
enthetical expression  elsewhere  in  the  sentence. 

66.  Possessives.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  possessive 
endings  of  pronouns  are  complete  without  the  apostrophe ; 
for  example,  inj,  mine,  our,  ours,  her,  hers,  its,  their,  theirs, 
ivJiose.   We  must  not  confuse  ifs  (it  is)  with  the  pronoun  its. 

67.  Pronouns  in  -self.  Pronouns  in  -self  are  emphatic  or 
reflexive.  We  say,  "  I  prefer  to  attend  to  that  myself,"  "Let 
him  fight  it  out  for  himself,"  "  Know  thyself";  but  we  ought 
not  to  say,  "Another  girl  and  myself  took  a  walk  this  after- 

•noon."   We  never  think  of  saying,  "  Myself  took  a  walk." 

VERBS 

68.  Conjugation  of  Verbs.  No  part  of  speech  is  more 
important  than  the  verb.  Like  nouns  and  pronouns,  verbs 
change  their  form  in  order  to  express  different  meanings, 
and  in  addition  have  the  help  of  auxiliaries,  such  as  sJiall, 


loS        THE  CORRECT  SENTENCE 

may,  can,  etc.  This  inflection  of  a  verb  is  called  its  conju- 
gation. The  declension  of  nouns  includes  changes  in  num- 
ber and  case ;  the  conjugation  of  verbs  includes  changes  in 
voice,  mood,  tense,  person,  and  number. 

69.  Transitive  and  Intransitive  Verbs.  According  to  their 
use  in  a  sentence,  verbs  are  either  transitive  or  intransitive. 
Transitive  means  going  over.  If  the  verb  is  transitive,  the 
action  goes  over  from  the  subject  to  a  noun  or  pronoun  called 
the  object;  for  example,  in  "John  Jiit  the  ball,"  the  action 
goes  over  to  the  ball.  If  the  verb  is  intransitive,  there  is 
nothing  logo  over ;  for  example,  "We  started  early,"  "  Every- 
body laughed."  Most  verbs  are  sometimes  transitive,  some- 
times intransitive  ;  for  example,  "  We  began  our  journey 
early,"  "The  day  began  pleasantly." 

EXERCISES 

1.  Compose  sentences  in  which  each  of  the  following 
verbs  takes  an  object  :  write,  run,  strike,  sing,  blow,  ring, 
break. 

2.  Compose  sentences  in  which  each  of  the  foregoing 
verbs  is  used  without  an  object. 

70.  Principal  Parts.  The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are 
the  present  (first  person,  singular),  the  past  (first  person, 
singular),  and  the  past  participle, — the  three  parts  of 
most  importance.  They  may  be  remembered  as  the  three 
which  take  the  jDlaces  of  the  blanks  in  the  following 
sentences  : 

Present  Past  Past  Participle 

I  now  I  yesterday  I  have 

I  \<.<rite  now  I  unote  yesterday  I  have  written 


VERBS  IQ9 

71.  Voice.  In  the  sentence  "  James  kicked  the  football," 
the  subject,  "James,"  is  acting,  and  the  verb  "kicked"  is 
said  to  be  in  the  active  voice.  James  does  the  kicking.  In 
the  sentence  "James  was  kicked  by  the  horse,"  the  subject, 
"James,"  is  acted  upon,  and  the  verb  "was  kicked"  is  said 
to  be  in  the  passive  voice.  James  receives  the  kicking. 
An  intransitive  verb  {sit,  lie),  since  its  subject  cannot  be 
acted  upon,  has  no  passive  voice.  If  the  subject  of  a  transi- 
tive verb  is  acting,  the  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  active  voice  ; 
if  the  subject  is  acted  upon,  the  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the 
passive  voice.  The  passive  voice  of  a  verb  is  formed  by 
adding  the  past  participle  to  some  form^of  the  verb  be. 

EXERCISE 

Show  whether  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  are 
active  or  passiv-e  : 

1.  She  has  assigned  the  lesson. 

2.  The  lesson  was  assigned  by  her. 

3.  The  secretary  read  the  report. 

4.  The  report  was  read  by  the  secretary. 

72.  Mood.  The  different  manners  of  expressing  the 
thought  of  the  verb  are  called  modes,  or  moods. 

1.  John  works.   (A  fact,  —  indicative  xaooCi) 

2.  I  wish  John  were  working.  (A  wish,  an  unreality, 
not  a  fact,  —  subjunctive  mood.) 

3.  Work.     (A  command, —^^/w/rr^?//?'^  mood.) 

The  indicative  mood  asserts  a  fact,  or  something  assumed 
to  be  a  fact,  or  asks  questions  of  fact. 

We  saw  him. 
Doubtless  he  is  here. 
Does  he  study  hard .'' 


no  THE   CORRECT  SENTENCE 

The  subjunctive  mood  presents  doubtful  or  conditional 
assertions,  or  unrealities. 

If  you  were  to  ask  him,  he  would  grant  the  request. 
If  he  were  here,  we  could  see  him. 

The  imperative  mood  expresses  a  command,  an  entreaty, 

or  a  wish.  ^    , 

Go  !  Let  us  try. 

73.  Infinitives.  Side  by  side  with  the  moods  there  are 
three  other  verb  forms  to  consider  :  infinitives,  participles, 
and  geruiuis.  K  finite  verb  is  ''limited";  an  infinitive  is 
"unlimited."  \\\  JoJin  walks  the  action  is  limited  to  John, 
and  to  the  present  time;  in  To  ivaUc  is  easy  the  action  is  not 
limited  to  any  subject  or  to  any  time.  From  this  example 
it  is  clear  that  an  infinitive  is  a  form  of  a  verb  which  is  used 
partly  like  a  verb,  partly  like  a  noun.  The  to  which  usually 
precedes  it  is  not  an  essential  part  of  it,  but  is  its  sign. 

He  wishes  to  go.     (With  sign.) 
He  will  go.    (Without  sign.) 

The  infinitive  has  two  tenses,  t\\Q  present  and  the  perfect. 
The  present  tense  shows  that  the  action  is  incomplete  at  the 
time  of  the  principal  verb  :  as,  "He  wishes  to  eat  "  ;  "He 
wished  to  eat."  The  perfect  tense  shows  that  the  action 
was  complete  at  the  time  of  the  principal  verb:  as,  "  It  is  a 
pleasure  to  have  finished  it."     On  "tense"  see  section  jG. 

EXERCISE 

Justify  or  correct  the  tenses  of  the  following  infinitives  : 

1.  He  was  eager  to  have  met  Edith. 

2.  I  am  glad  to  have  seen  you. 

3.  He  hoped  to  come  early. 


PARTICIPLES  1 1 1 

74.  Participles.  The  participle  is  a  form  of  a  verb  which 
is  used  partly  like  a  verb,  partly  like  an  adjective,  —  a  verbal 
adjective.  In  the  sentence  "The  boy  standing  in  the  corner 
is  Fred,"  standing  is  partly  verb,  partly  adjective. 

T\\Q,  present  participle  always  ends  in  -ing\  \.\\q.  past  par- 
ticiple is  one  of  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb;  \.\\&  perfect 
participle  is  having  joined  with  a  past  participle,  as  having 
studied,  having  eaten. 

The  wise  writer  is  exceedingly  careful  about  his  parti- 
ciples. Confusion,  and  sometimes  absurdity,  results  from 
failure  to  construct  the  sentence  so  that  it  shows  clearly 
just  what  word  the  participle  modifies. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Discuss  the  following  sentences  : 

While  I  was  coming  to  school  While  coming  to  school  this 

this  morning,  a  woman  entered      morning,  a  woman  entered  the 
the  car  at  K  Street.  car  at  K  Street. 

Note.  The  writer  does  not  mean  that  the  woman  was  on  her  waj' 
to  school. 

2.  Discuss  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  Last  Sunday,  while  walking  down  Bates  Street,  a  large  crowd 
had  gathered  on  the  bridge. 

2.  While  crossing  a  street  the  other  day,  a  car  stopped  in 
front  of  me. 

3.  While  standing  in  my  yard,  a  strange  dog  strolled  in. 

4.  After  taking  our  seats,  the  secretary  read  the  report. 

3.  See  whether  you  can  find  in  your  writing  any  parti- 
ciples which  do  not  clearly  modify  some  noun  or  pronoun. 
If  you  cannot,  read  to  the  class  five  of  your  sentences 
which  contain  participles. 


112  THE   CORRECT  SENTENCE 

75.  Gerunds.  Ending  ■  in  -iiig  like  the  present  parti- 
ciple,—  but  not  to  be  confused  with  it,  —  is  Xho,  gerund, 
which  is  partly  verb,  partly  noun.  It  is  sometimes  called 
the  verbal  noun  in  -ing. 

Seeing  us,  the  do<^  ran  away.    (Participle.) 
Seeing  is  believing.    (Gerunds.) 

The  noun  or  pronoun  which  precedes  the  gerund  must 
be  in  the  possessive  case. 

JoJin\^  jumping  was  heartily  applauded. 
Your  playing  is  good. 

EXERCISES 

1.  In  each  of  the  following  sentences  what  part  of  speech 
is  the  word  ending  in  -ing}  What  is  the  meaning  of  each 
sentence  } 

1.  I  wish  to  see  them  painting. 

2.  I  wish  to  see  their  painting. 

3.  I  heard  them  singing. 

4.  I  know  about  their  singing. 

5.  The  recitation  opened  by  his  reading  from  Webster. 

2.  Write  five  sentences  containing  verbal  nouns. 

3.  Point  out  the  verbal  nouns  and  the  verbal  adjectives 
in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  The  brook  running  through  the  meadow  is  clear. 

2.  Which  do  you  prefer,  running  or  playing  tennis? 

3.  He  is  a  rolling  stone. 

76.  Tense.  A  verb  has  different  forms  to  point  out  the 
time  of  action.    These  forms  are  called  tenses  ("times  "). 

I  see  you.    (Present  tense,  marking  present  action.) 

I  saw  you.    (Past  tense,  (?r  preterit,  marking  past  action.) 

I  sliall  see  you.    (Future  tense,  marking  future  action.) 


SHALL  AND  WILL  II3 

In  order  to  show  the  completeness  of  an  action  at  the  time 
of  speaking,  we  use  perfect  tenses. 

Now  I  have  caught  you.  (Present  perfect,  or  perfect,  marking 
action  completed  at  the  present  time.) 

We  spoke  to  him  after  he  had  spoken  to  us.  (Past  perfect,  or 
pluperfect,  marking  action  completed  in  past  time.) 

We  shall  have  climbed  the  mountain  before  you  reach  the 
spring.  (Future  perfect,  marking  action  that  will  be  completed 
in  future  time.) 

Of  the  six  tense  forms  only  two  are  simple,  the  present 
and  the/rtJ-/.  The  others  are  combinations  of  the  auxiliary 
verbs  (wz7/,  shall,  have,  be,  or  do)  with  parts  of  the  verb 
called  infinitives  and  participles. 

77.  The  Future  Tense  —  Shall  and  Will.  The  future 
tense  is  a  combination  of  the  auxiliary  verb  sJiall  or  ivill 
with  the  infinitive  without  to.  It  is  worth  while  to  note 
carefully  the  exact  meanings  of  shall  and  zvill. 

I .  In  Independent  Statements.  Shall,  which  comes  from 
the  old  infinitive  scnlan,  meaning  to  ozve,  now  denotes  %vhat 
is  to  happefi.  Hence  the  meaning  of  /  shall  is  /  am  destined 
to,  I  am  going  to. 

If,  without  expressing  his  own  determination,  a  person 
tells  what  you  are  going  to  do,  or  what  some  one  else  is 
going  to  do,  the  speaker  uses  zuill.  He  does  not  profess  to 
control  any  one's  future  but  his  own. 

These  forms,  then,  express  the  simple  future: 

I  sliall.  We  .shall. 

You  will.  You  will. 

He  will.  They  will. 

Will  has  different  shades  of  meaning.  /  z^ill means  (i )  / 
am  zvilling,  (2)  /  zvish,  (3)  /  am  determined,  so  strong  is 


114  im'   <-"ORRi:CT  SENTENCK 

ni)'  wish.  Again,  I  may  declare  my  will  or  determination 
in  a  promise  or  a  threat.  If  in  a  position  to  control  your 
will,  to  determine  your  conduct,  I  may  say  what  you  shall 
do,  are  destined  to  do.  If  I  can  control  the  will  or  conduct 
of  my  neighbor,  I  may  tell  him  what  he  sJiall  do,  is  destined 
to  do.  A  general  term  which  includes  all  these  shades  of 
meaning  is  volition. 

These  forms  express  volition  : 

I  will.  We  will. 

You  shall.  You  shall. 

He  shall.  They  shall. 

Examples  for  discussion  : 

1.  I  shall  go  to  school  to-morrow  if  I  am  able.  (It  is  not  a 
question  of  will,  but  of  what  is  to  happen' — of  simple  futurity.) 
So,  "  I  shall  study  till  nine  o'clock." 

2.  You  will  doubtless  meet  my  father. 

3.  He  will  return  to-night. 

4.  We  shall  leave  in  the  morning. 

5.  They  will  be  at  the  station. 

C.  I  will  see  him  to-morrow  if  I  can.  ("  It  is  my  wish,"  or  the 
sentence  may  imply  promise.) 

7.  I  will  second  any  motion  you  choose  to  make.  (It  may 
mean  merely  "  I  am  willing  to,"  or  it  may  imjjly  promise.) 

8  .   I  will  not  stay  another  minute.    (Determination.) 

9.  You  shall  start  at  once  ;  I  am  bound  you  shall.  ("  I  have 
both  the  determination  and  the  authority  necessary  to  start  you," 
is  the  implication.)  Compare  the  meaning  of  "  You  will  start  at 
once." 

10.  He  shall  go  with  you.  (Just  like  "You  shall  start  at 
once.") 

11.  We  will  join  your  party  if  you  have  room  for  us.  ("We 
are  willing.") 

12.  We  will  go,  room  or  no  room.     ("We  are  determined.") 

13.  We  will  meet  you  at  one  o'clock.     (Promise.) 

14.  You  shall  all  go.     (Promise  or  determination  or  threat.) 


SHALL  AND   WILL  II5 

15.  You  shall  go  this  minute.    (Determination  or  promise.) 

16.  My  boys  shall  be  prompt.    (Determination  or  promise.) 

2.  /;/  Questions.  In  asking  a  question  we  should  use 
the  same  auxihary  that  is  expected  m  the  answer.  Shall  is 
naturally  the  word  in  the  first  person.  We  should  not  ask, 
"Will  I  run  t  "  Will  is  correct,  however,  when  the  verb  is, 
as  it  were,  quoted  from  a  preceding  statement ;  for  example, 
"  Will  you  meet  me  .?  "  "  Why,  what  a  question  !  Will  I  ? 
Of  course  I  will." 

In  the  second  person  slia/l  is  the  proper  auxiliary  to 
express  futurity:  as,  "Shall  you  vote  for  Henry?"  Will 
denotes  volition. 

Examples  for  discussion  : 

1.  Shall  I  speak?  I  shall  (not). 

2.  Shall  you  read  ?  I  shall  (not).   (Simple  future.) 

3.  Shall  he  obey?  He  shall  (not). 

4.  Will  you  listen?  I  will  (not). 

5.  Will  he  obey?  He  will  (not). 

6.  Shall  I  help  you  ? 

7.  Will  he  go  to-day? 

8.  Shall  we  read  "  The  Merchant  of  Venice  "  aloud  ? 

9.  Will  they  care  to  listen  ? 

3.  Should  and  Would.  In  general,  we  use  should  and 
ivould  as  we  use  their  present  tenses,  shall  and  zvill.  For 
example,  James  says,  ''Will  John  come?"  So  we  say, 
"James  asked  if  John  would  come." 

Study  the  following  : 

1.  Will  he  care  to  see  me  if  he       Do  you  think  he  would  care  to 

comes  ?  see  me  if  he  came? 

2.  He  sees  that  I  shall  go.    (I  am       He  saw  that  I  should  go. 

going.) 

3.  He  .sees  that  I  will  go.    (I  wish       He  saw  that  I  would  go. 

or  am  determined  to  go.) 


Il6        THK  CORRECT  SENTENCE 

We  should  take  jxiins  not  to  use  loill  for  shall  or  would 
for  should,  as  they  are  used  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  I  will  be  drowned  ;  nobody  shall  help  me. 

2.  1   was  obliged   to   stop  playing   baseball  or  I   would  have 
ruined  myself,  as  I  played  so  much. 

Note  i.  .S'/z^wA/ sometimes  keeps  its  original  meaning,  "ought": 
as,  "  We  should  do  right." 

Note  2.  Wm97</<^/ .sometimes  expresses  habitual  action:  as,  "We 
would  talk  by  the  hour." 

4.  ///  Indirect  Discourse.  In  a  dependent  clause  of  indi- 
rect discourse,  when  the  subject  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
principal  clause,  we  use  the  auxiliary  which  we  should  use 
in  direct  discourse. 

Direct  Indirect 

1.  I  will  read  "Ivanhoe."    (I  am       He  says  he  will  read  "  Ivanhoe." 

willing,  or  I  promise.) 

2.  I  shall  read  "Ivanhoe."  (I  am       He  says  he  .shall  read  "  Ivanhoe." 

going  to.) 

3.  I  shall  be  beaten.  You  fear  that  you  shall  be  beaten. 

/;/  all  other  cases  of  indirect  discourse  we  use  the  same 
au.xiliary  in  dependent  clauses  that  we  use  in  independent 
sentences. 

Direct  Indirect 

1.  John  will  come.  Henry  says  that  John  will  come. 

2.  We  shall  be  happy.  They  say  we  shall  be  happy. 

5.  ///  Condi tioiuil  Clauses.  In  conditional  claiises  \\^  use 
shall  or  should  in  all  persons  to  express  simple  futurity  ; 
ivill  or  wojdd  in  all  persons  to  express  voHtion.    In  the 


SHALL  AND  WILL  II7 

conclusions  to  the  conditions  we  use  the  same  auxiliary 
that  we  use  in  independent  sentences. 

1.  If  I  should  do  it,  he  would  not  thank  me. 

2.  If  you  should  ask  him,  you  would  get  his  honest  opinion. 

3.  If  he  should  come,  we  should  be  glad  to  see  him. 

4.  If  you  will  join  us,  we  will  give  you  a  cordial  welcome. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Explain  sJiall  or  Ik.'H!  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  Thou  shalt  not  steal. 

2.  It  shall  rain. 

3.  He  fears  he  shall  not  meet  yon  in  London. 

4.  They  know  they  shall  win  the  prize. 

5.  Will  I  eat  my  dinner? 

6.  Into  what  room  should  I  go  ? 

7.  Should  you  help  him  if  you  were  in  my  place? 

8.  Would  you  help  him  if  you  could? 

9.  Should  he  be  elected? 

10.  Would  John  come  if  I  shoukl  invite  him? 

II.  He  said  he  should  be  here  by  noon.  " 

12.  He  said  he  would  be  here. 

13.  He  said  his  parents  would  be  here  by  noon. 

14.  He  said  his  parents  should  be  here. 

15.  There  is  a  rumor  about  that  a  strong  force  will  come  down 
from  Crown  Point  and  we  shall  be  attacked. 

16.  You  shall  hear  from  point  to  point  how  we  are  faring. 

17.  Rise  and  go  forth,  for  the  law  of  the  Lord  is  upon  thee, 
and  no  man  can  hinder  that  thou  doest.  Thou  shalt  look  upon 
the  sun  and  shalt  delight  in  him ;  and  again  thou  shalt  look  and 
the  light  of  the  air  shall  be  as  darkness.  Thou  shalt  boast  in  thy 
strength  and  in  thine  armor  that  there  is  none  like  thee,  and 
again  thou  shalt  cast  thy  glory  from  thee  and  say,  "This  also  is 
vanity."  The  king  delighteth  in  thee,  and  thou  shalt  stand  before 
the  queen  in  armor  of  gold  and  in  fine  raiment ;  and  the  end  is 


iiS  THK   CORRECT  S1<:NTENCE 

near,  for  the  liand  of  the  Lord  is  ujjon  thee.  If  the  Lord  will 
work  great  things  by  thee,  what  is  that  to  nie?  .  .   . 

Go  forth  and  do  thy  part,  for  thou  art  in  the  hand  of  the  Lord, 
and  some  things  thou  wilt  do  shall  be  good,  and  some  things  evil. 
.  .  .  But  because  there  is  some  good  in  thee,  it  shall  endure, 
and  thy  name  also,  for  generations  ;  and  though  the  evil  that 
besetteth  thee  shall  undo  thee,  yet  at  last  thy  soul  shall  live. 

F.  Marion  Crawford,  "Zoroaster." 

2.  Write  a  theme  on  the  subject  My  Ambitions. 

78.  Person  and  Number.    In  highly  inflected  languages 

like  Latin  and  Greek  the  verb  changes  its  form  to  agree 

with   its   subject   in   person   and   number,   as  the   verb   be 

does  : 

I  am.  I  ii>as. 

You  are  (thou  art).  You  tvei-e. 

He  is.  He  was. 

But  in  English,  with  two  or  three  exceptions,  the  only  change 
in  form  for  person  and  number  in  common  use  is  -s  in  the 
third  person  singular. 

We  should  always  be  especially  careful  to  have  the  verb 
agree  with  the  subject  when  other  words  come  between 
them  ;  for  example, 

Every  one  of  us  knows  this  to  be  true. 

EXERCISE 

Point  out  the  subject  and  the  proper  form  of  the  predi- 
cate in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  Since  his  death  the  popularity  of  his  books  [have?  has?] 
greatly  decreased. 

2.  The  way  of  transgressors  [is?  are?]  hard. 

3.  His  collection  of  words  [are?  is?]  very  good. 


CONJUGATION  1 19 

4.  Each  of  the  boys  [are?  is?]  ready. 

5.  A  superior  tone  of  education,  manners,  and  habits  [prevails  ? 
prevail?] 

6.  One  of  the  most  important  of  this  sort  of  colonies  [is  ?  are?] 
our  own. 

7.  Tht  principle  of  free  governments  [adheres?  adhere?]  to 
the  American  soil. 

8.  The  temporary  absence  of  worldly  scenes  and  employments 
[produce?  produces?]  a  state  of  mind  peculiarly  fitted  to  receive 
new  and  vivid  impressions. 

9.  The  vast  space  of  waters  that  [separates?  separate?]  the 
hemispheres  [is?  are?]  like  a  blank  page  in  existence. 

79.  Conjugation.  The  changes  in  voice,  mood,  tense, 
person,  and  number  which  constitute  the  conjugation  of 
verbs  we  should  remember  from  our  previous  study  of 
grammar.  To  those  who  do  not  remember  clearly  the 
usual  arrangement  of  the  forms  the  following  partial  con- 
jugation may  be  useful  : 

THE  VERB  "GIVE" 
Active  Voice,   Ixdicative  Mood 

Present  Tense 
I  give  (do  give,  am  giving).  We  give  (do  give,  are  giving). 

You  give.  You  give. 

He  gives.  They  give. 

Past  Tense 
I  gave  (did  give,  was  giving).  We  gave. 

You  gave.  You  gave. 

He  gave.  They  gave. 

Fiiinre  Teuse 
I  shall  give  (be  giving).  We  shall  give. 

You  will  give.  You  will  give. 

He  will  give.  They  will  give. 


1  20 


THE   CORRFXT  SIsNTENCE 


Perfect  Tense 

I  have  given  (been  giving).  We  have  given. 

You  have  given.  You  have  given. 

He  has  given.  They  have  given. 

Pluperfect  Tense 

I  had  given  (been  giving).  We  had  given. 

You  had  given.  You  had  given. 

He  had  given.  They  had  given. 

Future  Perfect  Teuse 
I  shall  have  given  (been  giving).  We  shall  have  given. 

You  will  have  given.  You  will  have  given. 

He  will  have  given.  They  will  have  given. 

EXERCISE 

Recite  synop.ses  of  give  in  both  the  active  and  the  pas- 
sive voice,  taking  each  person  in  turn  and  each  number. 

80.  Strong  Verbs.  The  so-called  j-/;w/i,^ verbs,  which  form 
the  past  tense  by  changing  the  vowel  of  the  present,  need 
special  attention.  Weak  verbs,  which  form  the  past  tense 
by  adding  -ed,  -d,  or  -/  to  the  present,  give  us  little  trouble. 
The  following  Hst  contains  several  strong  verbs  that  are 
often  ill  treated. 


Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

awake 

awoke,  awaked 

awaked 

bear 

bore 

borne  (carried) 
born  (brought  into 
the  world) 

beat 

beat 

beaten 

begin 

began 

begun 

beseech 

besought 

besought 

bid  (command,  or 

bade  («  as 

in  at^ 

bidden 

"  bid  good-by," 

etc.) 

bid  (at  auction) 

bid 

bid 

break 

broke 

broken 

STRONG  VERBS 


121 


bring 

brought 

brought 

burst 

burst 

burst 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

come 

came 

come 

dive 

dived,  dove 

dived 

do 

did 

done 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

drink 

drank 

drunk 

drive 

drove 

driven 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

fly 

flew 

flown 

forbid 

forbade 

forbidden 

forget 

forgot 

forgotten 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

get 

got 

got 

go 

went 

gone 

lay 

laid 

laid 

lead 

led 

led 

lie  (to  recline) 

lay 

lain 

ride 

rode 

ridden 

ring 

rang 

rung 

rise 

rose 

risen 

run 

ran 

run 

see 

saw 

seen 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

shoe 

shod 

shod 

show 

showed 

shown 

shrink 

shrank 

shrunk 

sing 

sang 

sung 

sit 

sat 

sat 

slay 

slew 

slain 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

spring 

sprang 

sprung 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

strive 

strove 

striven 

take 

took 

taken 

tear 

tore 

torn 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

write 

wrote 

written 

122  THE  CORRECT  SENTENCE 

EXERCISE 

Stud)'  the  principal  i:)arts  of  every  one  of  these  verbs 
until  you  know  them  thoroughly  and  can  use  them  me- 
chanically.   Be  prepared  to  write  as  well  as  to  recite  them. 

ADJECTIVES   AND   ADVERBS 

81.  Adjectives.  This  and  TJiat.  Although  most  adjec- 
tives change  their  form  only  in  comparison,  this  (plural, 
tJiese)  and  that  (plural,  tJwse)  are  inflected  for  number.  We 
must  therefore  take  pains  to  use  the  singular  forms  with 
the  collective  nouns  kind,  class,  and  sort,  which  are  gram- 
matically singular.    For  example, 

1.  Do  you  like ////j  kind  of  apples ? 

2.  I  prefer  t/iat  kind  of  pens. 

3.  We  all  enjoy  that  sort  of  man. 

82.  Articles.  Articles  limit  nouns  as  really  as  do  other 
adjectives,  and  it  is  important  to  remember  that  the  omis- 
sion or  addition  of  one  of  these  little  words  will  change  the 
meaning. 

"  I  know  a  poet  and  novelist  "  means  that  the  same  man 
is  both  poet  and  novelist.  "I  know  a  poet  and  a  novelist  " 
means  that  I  know  two  men,  the  one  a  poet  and  the  other 
a  novelist. 

EXERCISE 

E.xplain  the  following : 

1.  The  red  and  white  flag. 

2.  The  red  and  white  flags. 

3.  The  red  and  the  white  flags. 

4.  The  red,  white,  and  blue  flags. 

5.  The  red,  the  white,  and  the  blue  flags. 


ADJECTIVES  AND   ADVERBS  123 

6.  The  red  and  white,  and  the  bhie  flags. 

7.  The  red,  and  the  white  and  blue  flags. 

8.  I  saw  a  black  and  a  white  boy. 

9.  I  saw  a  black  and  white  boy. 

83.  Adjective  or  Adverb.  Sometimes  you  may  be  uncer- 
tain whether  you  need  an  adjective  or  an  adverb.  If  you  are 
describing  the  subject,  use  an  adjective ;  if  you  are  modifying 
the  verb,  use  an  adverb.  In  "He  looks  happy"  and  "He  is 
happy"  the  adjective  goes  with  the  subject.  In  "He  speaks 
happily"  we  learn  about  his  manner  of  speaking.  In  gen- 
eral, use  an  adjective  whenever  you  can  substitute  some 
form  of  be  for  the  verb ;  in  other  cases  use  an  adverb. 

First  is  both  adjective  and  adverb.    K\o\A  firstly. 
Most  is  sometimes  carelessly  used  for  almost,  which  is 
an  adverb. 

EXERCISE 

Discuss  these  examples  : 

I.  The  sun  shines  hot.  2.  She  flushed  hotly.  3.  The  moon 
shines  bright.  4.  The  flowers  smell  sweet.  5.  She  smiled  so 
sweetly  that  Mary  soon  forgave  her.  6.  We  reached  home  safe 
(safely).  7.  He  fell  unconscious  (unconsciously).  8.  I  found  my 
opponent  quick  (quickly).  9.  My  pictures  came  out  fine  and  the 
first  sunny  day  I  shall  print  some.  10.  The  father  looked  gravely 
at  the  son.  11.  The  boy  looked  grave.  12.  Our  fathers  came 
here  to  enjoy  their  religion  free  and  unmolested.  13.  He  is 
almost  ready.  14.  Most  children  are  happy.  15.  Almost  all 
children  are  happy. 

PREPOSITIONS 

84.  The  Proper  Preposition.  Although  prepositions  do 
not  change  their  form,  it  is  important  to  choose  the  preposi- 
tion required  in  any  given  instance. 


124        THE  CORRECT  SENTENCE 

There  are  special  prepositions  that  go  with  certain  words. 
For  example,  we  should  say  dijf event  from  (not  different  titan). 
"  His  hat  is  better  than  mine  and  different  from  yours." 

EXERCISES 

1.  Compose  sentences  to  illustrate  the  meaning  of  the 
following  prepositions  : 

beside  (by  the  side  of),  besides  (in  addition  to). 

between  (when  the  reference  is  to  two  objects),  among  (when 
the  reference  is  to  more  than  two  objects). 

in,  into.  {Into  implies  motion  or  direction  inward.  Compare 
"He  is  walking  in  the  room  "  and  "He  is  walking  into  the  room.") 

2.  Compose  sentences  for  the  sake  of  using  correctly 
each  of  the  following  expressions  : 

agree  with  (a  person) 
agree  to  (a  proposal) 
confide  in  (=  trust  in) 
confide  to  (=  intrust  to) 
conform  to 

correspond  to  or  with  (a  thing) 
correspond  with  (a  person) 
differ  from  (a  person  or  thing) 
differ  from  or  with  (in  opinion) 

different  from       ^ 

need  of 

part  from  or  with 
taste  of  (food) 
taste  for  (art) 

CONJUNCTIONS 

Like  prepositions,  conjunctions  do  not  change  their  form, 
but  they  are  sometimes  used  incorrectly.  They  are  either 
coordinate  or  snlordinatc. 


CONJUNCTIONS  1 25 

85.  Coordinate  Conjunctions.  Coordinate  conjunctions 
connect  parts  of  a  sentence  that  have  the  same  "order," 
or  rank:  as,  "He  is  bright  a7id  he  knows  it."  They  take  the 
same  construction  after  them  as  before  them.  The  simple 
coordinate  conjunctions  are  and,  but,  and  or. 

1.  This  is  the  man  who  came  yesterday  and  who  says  he  knows 
you.    {And  connects  dependent  clauses.) 

2.  He  read  some  rules  concerning  pronouns  and  which  were 
to  be  looked  over  carefully  for  the  next  lesson.  (An  incorrect 
sentence :  an  attempt  to  make  a)td  connect  a  phrase  with  a 
dependent  clause.) 

Certain  coordinate  conjunctions  go  in  pairs  :  not  only  — 
but  also  (but);  not  merely  —  but;  both  —  and  ;  as  well 
—  as;  either  —  or;  neither — nor. 

Their  position  should  show  at  once  what  words  they  com- 
pare or  contrast. 

1.  Not  only  is  he  trying,  but  he  is  succeeding. 

2.  I  am  eager  to  own  not  only  "  The  Pathfinder  "  and  "  The 
Spy  "  dut  also  "  Rob  Roy  "  and  "  Quentin  Durward." 

3.  I  am  eager  not  only  to  own  those  books  but  also  to  read 
them. 

4.  They  recognized  neither  the  horse  nor  the  carriage. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  sentences  in  which  you  let  each  of  the  simple 
coordinate  conjunctions  connect  (i)  independent  clauses, 
(2)  dependent  clauses,  (3)  phrases. 

2.  Write  sentences  in  which  you  use  each  of  the  fore- 
going pairs  of  conjunctions. 

86.  Subordinate  Conjunctions.  Subordinate  conjunctions 
introduce  subordinate  clauses  :  as,  "  We  knew  that  he  ivas 
a  sailor'' ;  "  If  you  prefer,  I  will  remain." 


126        THE  CORRECT  SENTENCE 

Like  must  not  be  used  as  an  equivalent  for  the  subor- 
dinate conjunction  as.  Say  "He  walks  as  Fred  does,"  not 
"  He  walks  like  Fred  does."  When  the  v^erb  is  not  ex- 
pressed, as  in  "  He  walks  like  Fred,"  like  is  correct ;  in 
this  case  it  has  the  force  of  a  preposition. 

Nor  should  like  be  used  for  as  if  in  such  a  sentence 
as  "He  looked  as  if  he  were  angry."  Never  say,  "He 
looked  like  he  was  angry." 

PHRASES  AND  CLAUSES 

87.  Phrases.  A  group  of  connected  words  is  often  used 
as  a  single  part  of  speech.  If  such  a  group  is  without  a 
subject  and  a  predicate,  it  is  called  a  phrase.  Phrases  are 
used  as  nouns,  adjectives,  or  adverbs. 

Nojin  phrases  are  frequently  infinitive  phrases. 

To  err  is  human.   (Subject.) 

He  likes  to  read  Scott.     (Object.) 

They  urged  us  to  join  the  party. 

Adjective  phrases   may   be  prepositional,   participial,   or 

infinitive  phrases. 

I  know  the  captain  of  the  elei'eji.  (Prepositional.) 
We  saw  John  resting  in  the  shade.  (Participial.) 
Have  you  patience  to  waif?   (Infinitive.) 

Adverbial  phrases  are  frequently  prepositional. 

He  is  in  the  hdtise. 
They  went  at  once. 

88.  Clauses.  A  cla7i.se  is  a  group  of  words  which  con- 
tains a  subject  and  a  predicate.  If  a  clause  cannot  stand 
by  itself  as  a  complete  sentence,  —  in  other  words,  if  it  is 


PHRASES  AND   CLAUSES 


127 


used  as  a  single  part  of  speech,  —  it  is  said  to  be  depend- 
ent; other  clauses  are  independent. 

that  y oil  are  honest. 

(Dependent  or  subordi- 
nate clause,  used    as   a 
noun ;   equivalent   to 
your  honesty.) 

they  tootc  our  seats. 
(Independent  clause.) 

is  well  known. 


/  do  not  doubt 
(Independent 
or  principal  clause.) 


Noun 
clauses 


IVe  stood  up  and 

(Independent  clause.) 

That  he  is  able 
(Subject,  equiva- 
lent to  his  ability^ 

Do  you  know 

This  is 


The  report  tliat  he  is  coniini:^ 
(In  apposition  with  the 
subject.) 

I  do  not  believe  the  report 


who  he  is  ? 

(Object,  equivalent  to 

him.) 
■where  I  live. 

(Predicate  nominative, 

equivalent  to  my  home.) 
surprises  me. 


that  he  is  comins;. 

(In   apposition  with  the 
object.) 

r  There  is  a  honse  that  is  kind.    (Equivalent  to  kind.) 
Adjective  J  ^,    brother,  who  is  older  than  I,  knows  him  better.  (Equiv- 

clauses  1     ^  +      i  j. .  \ 

[^  alent  to  older.) 

'I  shall  study  when  you  study.    (Time.) 
where yojt  study.    (Place.) 
if  you  study.    (Condition.) 
because  you  study.    (Cause.) 
Adverbial  as  you  study.    (Manner.) 

clauses       |  I  shall  go  in  order  that  you  may  study.    (Puq^ose.) 
I  shall  study  as  hard  as  you  do.    (Degree.) 
I  shall  study  although  you  do  not.    (Concession.) 
He  has  studied  birds  so  much  that  he  knows  something 
about  them.    (Result.) 


128        THE  CORRECT  SENTENCE 

89.  Analysis.  In  analyzing  a  simple  sentence  we  sepa- 
rate it  in  this  way  : 

Subject  and  Predicate  and  Object  and 

modijiers  modijlers  modijiers 

Modifiers  of  the  subject  are  adjectives,  adjective  phrases, 
or  adjective  clauses.  Modifiers  of  the  predicate  are  adverbs, 
adverb  phrases,  or  adverb  clauses.  Modifiers  of  the  object 
arc  adjectives,  adjective  phrases,  or  adjective  clauses. 

If  the  sentence  is  complex,  separate  the  main  from  the 
subordinate  clause  and  analyze  each  in  turn.  Be  ready 
to  tell  the  relation  between  the  main  and  the  subordinate 
clause. 

Separate  a  compound  sentence  into  its  clauses,  and  ana- 
lyze each  as  you  would  a  simple  sentence. 

Let  us  arrange  the  following  sentences  so  that  the  eye 
can  see  instantly  the  relation  of  the  parts. 

On  a  soft  sunny  morning  in  the  genial  month  of  May  I  made 
an  excursion  to  Windsor  Castle.  It  is  a  place  full  of  storied  and 
poetical  associations. 


Subject                    Predicate 

Object 

Predicate 

and                            and 

and 

7iotnitiative  or 

m  odijiers                     vi  odifiers 

m  odijiers 

predicate 
adjective 

I                           made 

an  excursion 

on  a  soft  summer  morning 

in  the  genial  month  of  May 

to  Windsor  Castle 

. 

It                           is 

a 

place  (predicate 
nominative)   full 
of    storied    and 
poetical  associa- 
tions 

ANALYSIS  129 

EXERCISES 

1.  Analyze  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  The  black  cow  is  in  the  pasture  near  the  road. 

2.  We  will  all  go  with  you  if  you  are  willing. 

3.  We  know  whom  you  mean. 

4.  I  said,  "Dick,  you  are  right." 

5.  When  they  learned  that  it  was  I,  they  were  very  happy. 

6.  They  were  surprised  to  find  it  was  I. 

7.  Man  can  neither  drink  steam  nor  eat  stone. 

2.  Analyze  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  John  Gilpin  was  a  citizen 
Of  credit  and  renown. 

2.  Tell  me  not  in  mournful  numbers 
Life  is  but  an  empty  dream. 

3.  The  very  external  aspect  of  the  proud  old  pile  is  enough  to 
inspire  high  thought. 

4.  It  rears  its  irregular  walls  and  massive  towers,  like  a  mural 
crown,  round  the  brow  of  a  lofty  ridge,  waves  its  royal  banner  in 
the  clouds,  and  looks  down,  with  a  lordly  air,  upon  the  surround- 
ing world. 

5.  It  was  upon  a  delicious  summer  morning,  before  the  sun 
had  assumed  its  scorching  power,  and  while  the  dews  yet  cooled 
and  perfumed  the  air,  that  a  youth,  coming  from  the  northeast- 
ward, approached  the  ford  of  a  small  river,  or  rather  a  large 
brook,  tributary  to  the  Cher,  near  to  the  royal  Castle  of  Plessis- 
les-Tours,  whose  dark  and  multiplied  battlements  rose  in  the 
background  over  the  extensive  forest  with  which  they  were 
surrounded. 

6.  On  the  bank  of  the  above-mentioned  brook,  opposite  to 
that  which  the  traveler  was  ap]:)roaching,  two  men,  who  appeared 
in  deep  conversation,  seemed,  from  time  to  time,  to  watch  his 
motions  ;  for,  as  their  station  was  much  more  elevated,  they  could 
remark  him  at  considerable  distance. 


130  THE    CORRECT   SENTENCE 

\Xc  should  practise  analyzing  sentences  until  we  can  do  it 
easily.  In  reading,  ability  to  analyze  will  help  us  understand 
a  puzzling  sentence  ;  in  revising  our  writing,  this  ability 
will  help  us  manage  a  sentence  that  seems  awkward  or  un- 
tractable.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  sentence  structure  will 
mean  that  as  we  talk  and  write,  words  will  slip  into  their 
proper  places. 


CHAPTER    XI 
THE  EFFECTIVE  SENTENCE 

90.  Unity  in  the  Sentence.  We  have  seen  that  the  ideal 
paragraph  is  a  unit,  and  the  very  definition  of  a  sentence 
shows  that  the  sentence,  too,  should  be  a  unit.  One  of  the 
hardest  things  for  many  young  writers  to  learn  is  to  stop 
when  they  have  finished  this  sentence  unit.  Like  fluent 
but  careless  letter  writers,  they  ramble  on  from  one  sub- 
ject to  another  without  a  period.  Sometimes  this  dividing 
paragraphs  into  sentences  is  a  very  simple  matter;  at  other 
times  it  is  somewhat  puzzling. 

91.  Value  of  Simple  and  Complex  Sentences.  You  re- 
member from  your  study  of  grammar  that  a  simple  sentence 
consists  of  a  single  statement,  command,  question,  or  ex- 
clamation. Such  a  sentence  seldom  lacks  unity.  If  your 
sentence  is  complex,  —  that  is  to  say,  if  it  consists  of  one 
main  clause  and  one  or  more  subordinate  clauses, — you 
have  a  good  chance  to  put  the  important  statement  in  a 
prominent  position  ;  but  if  your  sentence  is  compound,  — 
if  it  consists  of  two  or  more  clauses  of  equal  rank,  —  you 
will  need  to  give  especial  attention  to  unity.  A  sentence 
may  include  two  or  more  separate  thoughts  provided  they 
merge  in  one  greater  thought.  Several  such  thoughts  may 
form  a  .series  or  may  constitute  a  group  of  details  in  a 
single  picture.    For  example  : 

I.  The  smith,  with  the  horse's  heel  in  his  lap,  pauses  as  the 
vehicle  whirls  by  ;    the   ryrlnps   round   the   anvil  suspend   their 


132  THE   EFFECTIVE  SENTENCE 

ringing  hammers,  and  suffer  the  iron  to  grow  cool;  and  the  sooty 
specter  in  brown  paper  cap,  laboring  at  the  bellows,  leans  on  the 
handle  for  a  moment  and  permits  the  asthmatic  engine  to  heave 
a  long-drawn  sigh,  while  he  glares  through  the  mirky  smoke  and 
sulphurous  gleams  of  the  smithy. 

2.  At  this  point  I  cannot  keep  out  of  mind  the  story  of  the 
preacher  who  divided  his  discourse  into  three  heads.  He  declared 
it  to  be  his  intention,  under  his  first  head,  to  speak  of  some 
things  that  he  knew  all  about,  and  of  which  his  congregation  knew 
nothing  ;  under  his  second  head,  he  proposed  to  deal  with  mat- 
ters that  both  he  and  his  hearers  fully  understood  ;  and  under 
the  third  head,  he  promised  to  discuss  topics  concerning  which 
neither  he  nor  they  had  any  knowledge. 

It  is  a  good  habit,  however,  in  revising  your  work  to  see 
whether  you  cannot  improve  sentences  by  making  com- 
pound sentences  either  simple  or  complex. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  each  of  the  following  sentences  either  simple  or 
complex.  Emphasize  the  main  thought.  When  it  seems 
best,  substitute  a  phrase  for  a  clause. 

1.  I  called  this  morning  before  school  and  he  was  still  asleep. 

2.  He  rounded  the  corner  and  recognized  his  old  master. 

3.  The  bell  rang  and  the  room  became  quiet. 

4.  We  went  into  the  kitchen  and  found  Fred  putting  up  the 
luncheon. 

5.  Night  came  on  and  we  hurried  out  of  the  wood. 

6.  We  reached  the  mooring  about  five  o'clock  and  we  took  the 
party  ashore  in  the  tender. 

7.  We  returned  to  the  boat  and  cleaned  her  deck  and  sides 
and  then  went  ashore. 

8.  1  was  skating  on  Jamaica  Pond  a  few  nights  ago  and  saw 
a  novel  way  of  gliding  over  the  ice. 


UNIFORM  CONSTRUCTION  1 33 

2.  Find  in  your  writing  three  compound  sentences.  Turn 
them  into  complex  sentences  by  using  subordinate  clauses, 
and  point  out  any  improvement  or  lack  of  improvement. 

92.  Uniform  Construction.  If  possible,  keep  the  con- 
struction of  a  sentence  uniform.  One  way  to  do  this  is  to 
keep  the  same  subject  and  the  same  voice  throughout  the 
sentence.    For  example  : 

Change  of  Consiniction  Uniform  Construction 

I.  I  looked  down  on  the  river  2.  I  looked  down  on  the  river 
and  twenty  small  boys  could  be  and  could  see  twenty  small  boys 
seen  swimming  merrily  about.         swimming  merrily  about. 

As    we    read    i,   we    may    naturally    inquire,    "By   whom 
could  the  boys  be  seen.^" 


EXERCISES 

1.  Improve  these  sentences  : 

1.  As  we  looked  eagerly  toward  the  opening  in  the  wood,  the 
familiar  face  of  our  favorite  horse  was  seen. 

2.  Many  people  take  great  pleasure  in  photography  and  in 
taking  long  drives,  and  even  reading  is  often  enjoyed  by  people. 

2.  Examine  ten  pages  of  your  own  work  to  see  whether 
you  have  any  similar  changes  in  the  construction.  Write 
your  report. 

3.  (i)  In  sentences  to  send  to  pupils  in  another  high 
school,  write  what  you  consider  the  most  important  thing 
to  say  about  each  of  five  of  the  following  subjects  :  "  The 
Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,"  "The  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mari- 
ner," Rebecca  (in  "Ivanhoe"),  Locksley,  "Treasure  Island," 


134  'l^HE   EFFECTIVE  SENTENCE 

"The  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  Abraham  Lincoln's  Boyhood, 
Napoleon,  Kngland  and  America,  International  Peace, 
Our  School  Paper,  The  Good  Effects  of  War,  Our  Liter- 
ary Society,  Extempore  Speaking.  (2)  Examine  each  sen- 
tence carefully  to  see  whether  it  is  a  unit.  If  there  is  any 
doubt  about  the  unity  of  a  sentence,  rewrite.  See  that  the 
construction  is  uniform. 

93.  Long  or  Short  Sentences.  If  you  indulge  in  a  long 
sentence,  be  sure  that  you  keep  it  well  in  hand.  The  longer 
you  allow  a  sentence  to  run,  the  greater  is  the  danger  that 
it  will  run  away  with  you.  A  short  sentence  is  easier  to 
manage,  and  is  more  likely  to  be  a  unit. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Turn  this  runaway  compound  sentence  into  two  com- 
plex sentences : 

When  school  began  we  made  new  acquaintances,  but  "our 
friend  in  need"  became  a  chum  to  me,  but  he  was  rather  old 
for  my  brother  who  made  friends  for  himself  among  the  mem- 
bers of  his  class. 

2.  Copy  from  your  writing  five  of  the  longest  sentences 
you  can  find,  and  rewrite  any  into  which  you  have  crowded 
ideas  which  have  no  close  connection. 

Occasionally  short  sentences  need  to  be  combined.  A 
glance  shows  that  for  the  following  material  one  sentence 
is  better  than  three : 

On  my  way  home  I  saw  two  On  my  way  home  I  saw  two 

wagons  broken  down  :  one  had  wagons     broken     down.     One 

the  rear  axle  broken  ;  the  other  had  the  rear  axle  broken.    The 

had  the  shafts  broken.  other  had  the  shafts  broken. 


UNITY  135 

EXERCISE 

See  whether,  in  the  last  piece  of  writing  you  have 
done,  there  are  any  such  scrappy  sentences  as  tliese. 
What  suggestions  might  help  the  pupil  who  wrote  them  ? 

The  lady  Rowena  was  tall  and  had  a  fair  complexion.  Her 
eyes  were  blue.  She  loved  to  wear  rich  clothes.  She  was  well 
built  and  of  a  noble  family.  She  had  a  fine  set  of  teeth.  She 
had  no  parents  and  was  under  the  care  of  Cedric. 

94.  Ways  of  Securing  Unity.  It  will  be  helpful  to  keep 
in  mind  these  ways  of  securing  unity  : 

1.  A  sentence  is  likely  to  be  a  unit  if  it  is  simple  or 
complex  rather  than  compound. 

2.  We  need  to  give  special  attention  to  a  compound 
sentence  in  order  to  keep  out  ideas  which  are  not  closely 
connected. 

3.  We  should  keep  the  construction  of  the  sentence 
uniform. 

4.  A  short  sentence  is  more  likely  to  be  a  unit  than  a 
long  sentence. 

95.  Coherence  in  the  Sentence.  Clear  thinking  leads  to 
clear  writing.  If  we  think  of  one  thing  at  a  time,  we  shall 
naturally  write  of  one  thing  at  a  time ;  but  even  then  it  is 
not  always  easy  to  express  the  thought  so  that  it  plainly 
forms  a  whole.  This  means  that  the  exact  relation  which 
any  part  of  the  sentence  bears  to  any  other  part  must  be 
evident.  As  all  the  sentences  in  a  paragraph  should  cUng 
together,  so  should  all  the  words  in  a  sentence  cling  to- 
gether ;  words  closely  connected  in  meaning  should  be 
closely  connected  in  position,  and  there  should  be  no  doubt 
about  the  relation  of  the  words  to  one  another. 


136  THE   EFFECTIVE  SENTENCE 

96.  Ways  of  securing  Coherence.  We  should  keep  in 
mind  these  ways  of  securing  coherence  : 

I.  In  general,  put  together  words  that  belong  together. 
Try  to  place  every  word,  phrase,  or  clause  close  to  the  word 
or  words  it  modifies. 

1.  I  asked  before  breakfast  where  you  were.  {^Before  breakfast 
modifies  asked.) 

2.  I  asked  where  you  were  before  breakfast.  {Before  breakfast 
modifies  tvere?) 

3.  School  began  only  yesterday.    {Only  modifies  jf^/tvv/;? v.) 

4.  Only  one  of  us  can  go.    {Only  modifies  one.) 

Note.  A  good  rule  is  to  place  on/y  just  before  or  just  after  the 
word  or  words  it  limits.  Words  that  need  similar  attention  are 
also  and  even. 

For  the  position  of  not  only  —  hut  also  and  other  pairs  of 
coordinate  conjunctions,  see  section  85. 

2.  In  particular,  see  that  the  relation  of  the  participle  to 
the  noun  or  pronoun  it  modifies  is  unmistakable.  See  sec- 
tion 74,  and  note  the  following  examples : 

1.  Looking  backward,  the  mistake  seems  inexcusable.  (Obvi- 
ously the  mistake  cannot  look  backward.  We  may  say,  "  As  we 
look  backward,"  or  "  As  one  looks  backward,"  etc.) 

2.  While  coming  home  from  school  the  other  day,  the  sidewalks 
were  very  slippery.    (The  sidewalks,  while  coming?) 

3.  Be  equally  careful  to  see  that  the  relation  between  a 
pronoun  and  its  antecedent  is  clear.    See  sections  64-65. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Explain  the  meaning  of  each  of  the  following  sentences: 

1 .  He  came  onlv  yesterday. 

2.  Only  you  need  study  to-day. 

3.  You  only  need  study  to-day. 


COHERENCE  1 37 

4.  You  need  study  only  to-day. 

5.  You  need  study  to-day  only. 

6.  You  need  only  study  to-day. 

2.  Compose  four  sentences  to  show  the  proper  use  of 
only,  also,  and  even. 

3.  Subject  the  following  sentences  to  your  keenest  criti- 
cism. Remembering  that  to  criticise  means  "to  judge," 
be  just  as  eager  to  see  the  good  as  to  find  fault.  Discuss 
thoroughly  the  meaning  of  each  sentence  as  it  stands. 
Whenever  you  think  the  meaning  should  be  clearer,  or 
the  expression  different,  suggest  changes. 

1.  The  value  of  the  property  has  been  reduced   to  a  vast 
extent. 

2.  Do  you  receive  The  Outlook  I  send  you  regularly? 

3.  So  he  had   to  leave  the   hills  among  which  he  grew  up 
for  a  time. 

4.  I  shall  keep  the  last  horse  I  bought  for  my  own  use. 

5.  He  was  elected  by  a  majority  of  only  one. 

6.  He  does  not  live  ;  he  only  exists. 

7.  I  shall  speak  only  a  few  miiiutes. 

8.  There  are  prizes  for  the  three  first  pupils  in  the  class. 

9.  Others  appreciate  the  book  as  well  as  the  author. 

10.  Others,  as  well  as  the  author,  appreciate  the  book. 

1 1 .  He  not  only  saw  you  and  me  but  all  the  others  in  the 
party. 

12.  I  can  only  come  during  my  vacation. 

13.  He  not  only  brought  bread  but  berries. 

14.  He  not  only  read  the  book  but  learned  much  of  it  by 
heart. 

15.  Not  to  overrate  him  I  only  mentioned  a  few  of  his 
characteristics. 

16.  His  efforts  at  all  events  were  praiseworthy. 

17.  If  Eliot  is  not  the  best  captain,  he  is  the  best  pitcher  at 
least  that  ever  played  on  our  campus. 


138  THE   EFFECTIVE   SENTENCE 

1 8.  The  charge  he  brings  against  me  I  shall  neither  try  to 
answer  nor  deny. 

19.  Most  of  my  friends  like  athletics  like  myself,  and  we  spend 
most  of  our  time  playing  baseball,  football,  hockey,  or  other  games. 

20.  Either  you  must  work  hard  or  fall  behind. 

21.  He  was  also  fond  of  Jim  Hawkins,  which  always  shows 
there  is  some  good  in  a  person  if  he  is  fond  of  children. 

22.  Jim  Hawkins,  also  a  leading  character  in  "Treasure  Island," 
was  unlike  the  other  person  whom  we  have  written  of  in  many 
respects. 

23.  We  are  to  make  a  list  of  words  from  the  rest  of  Act  I  of 
the  play  which  need  explaining. 

24.  It  not  only  educates  the  mind  but  the  hand  also. 

25.  I  either  go  to  see  a  professional  game  or  play  in  a  game 
myself  on  the  common. 

26.  A  few  boys  and  I,  every  Saturday,  would  go  out  early  in 
the  morning  and  stay  out  all  day. 

97.  Life  in  the  Sentence.  Unity  and  coherence  are 
matters  for  us  to  consider  carefully  as  we  revise  our  work. 
While  writing  we  should  not  think  of  them,  but  should  try 
to  express  ourselves  simply  and  clearly.  If  we  are  energetic 
ourselves,  we  shall  probably  put  life  into  our  sentences. 

The  active  voice  makes  our  sentences  move  easily  and 
rapidly.  The  passive  voice,  although  indispensable,  is  some- 
times clumsy  and  sluggish.  These  two  versions  show  the 
value  of  the  active  voice  : 

I.   Engines     were      arriving  2.   Engines     were     arriving 

every  minute  ;  firemen  were  every  minute,  lines  of  hose  were 
laying  hose,  putting  up  ladders,  being  laid,  ladders  were  being 
and  pouring  water  into  the  fire.      put  up,   and   water  was   being 

poured  into  the  fire. 

One  who  reads  only  the  second  version  is  tempted  to  ask 
who  did  all  the  work. 


LIFE  139 


EXERCISES 


1.  Find  in  your  own  work  clumsy  examples  of  the  pas- 
sive voice,  and  note  the  improvement  made  by  changing 
them  to  the  active  voice. 

2.  In  the  following  extract  point  out  all  expressions  that 
have  life  : 

The  sun  had  risen  higher  while  they  talked,  and  his  rays  were 
growing  hot  in  the  clear  air.  The  mist  had  lifted  from  the  city 
below,  and  all  the  streets  and  open  places  were  alive  with  noisy 
buyers  and  sellers,  whose  loud  talking  and  disputing  came  up  in  a 
continuous  hum  to  the  palace  on  the  hill,  like  the  drone  of  a 
swarm  of  bees. 

3.  Make  a  careful  study  of  the  sentences  in  the  follow- 
ing paragraph.  Read  them  aloud.  Point  out  all  expressions 
that  have  life. 

RiKKI-TlKKI 

Rikki-tikki  was  bounding  all  around  Nagaina,  keeping  just  out 
of  reach  of  her  stroke,  his  little  eyes  like  hot  coals.  Nagaina 
gathered  herself  together,  and  flung  out  at  him.  Rikki-tikki 
jumped  up  and  backward.  Again  and  again  she  struck,  and  each 
time  her  head  came  with  a  whack  on  the  matting  of  the  veranda 
and  she  gathered  herself  together  like  a  watch-spring.  Then 
Rikki-tikki  danced  in  a  circle  to  get  behind  her,  and  Nagaina  spun 
round  to  keep  her  head  to  his  head,  so  that  the  rusde  of  her  tail 
on  the  matting  sounded  like  dry  leaves  blown  along  by  the  wind. 

He  had  forgotten  the  egg.  It  still  lay  on  the  veranda,  and 
Nagaina  came  nearer  and  nearer  to  it,  till  at  last,  while  Rikki-tikki 
was  drawing  breath,  she  caught  it  in  her  mouth,  turned  to  the 
veranda  steps,  and  flew  like  an  arrow  down  the  path,  with 
Rikki-tikki  behind  her.  When  the  cobra  runs  for  her  life,  she 
goes  like  a  whiplash  flicked  across  a  horse's  neck.  —  Kipling, 
"  Rikki-Tikki-Tavi  "  in  "The  Jungle  Book." 


I40  THE   EFFECTIVE  SENTENCE 

4.  Write  a  paragrapli  in  order  to  give  a  picture  of  the 
grace  and  agility  of  a  squirrel,  or,  if  you  prefer,  of  some 
other  animal. 

5.  After  reading  carefully  a  full  account  of  the  appear- 
ance of  some  person,  describe  the  person  in  your  own 
words.  You  may  use  as  many  of  the  words  of  the  book  as 
you  remember,  but  you  are  not  to  refer  to  it  while  writing. 

6.  In  a  similar  way  write  an  account  of  the  appearance 
of  some  character  in  a  story.  Make  your  picture  as  lifelike 
as  possible. 

By  this  time  every  one  must  see  that  it  is  important  in 
the  treatment  of  any  subject  (i)  to  limit  the  subject ;  (2)  to 
deal  separately  with  each  division  of  the  subject,  —  each 
topic  ;  and  (3)  in  developing  a  topic  to  say  only  one  thing 
at  a  time. 

In  saying  this  one  thing  we  should  try  to  think  so  clearly 
that  the  words  will  fit  together  properly.  If  we  fail  to 
secure  the  best  order,  however,  we  should  recast  the  sen- 
tence until  we  are  confident  that  the  relations  of  the  words 
to  one  another  will  be  readily  understood.  At  the  same 
time  let  us  make  it  easy  for  the  reader  to  distinguish  the 
main  thought  from  subordinate  thoughts. 

Sentences  must  not  seem  studied.  Just  because  you  do 
not  always  know  precisely  how  you  are  to  express  what 
you  wish  to  say,  it  is  not  wise  to  stop  and  wonder  whether 
you  can  express  it  at  all.  As  soon  as  your  thought  comes, 
begin  to  write.  Begin  as  naturally  as  you  can  —  with  the 
subject  of  the  sentence,  with  the  expression  that  will 
emphasize  the  main  thought,  or  with  whatever  will  best 
connect  the  sentence  with  what  goes  before.    Do  not  worry 


LIFE  141 

about  the  middle  or  the  end.  With  your  goal  clearly  in 
mind,  press  steadily  toward  it.  A  good  beginning  and  per- 
severance ought  to  bring  a  good  ending.  Above  all,  think 
vigorously  and  write  rapidly,  so  that  your  sentences  may 
have  smoothness  and  life. 


CHAPTER    XII 
THE  EXACT  WORD 

"  The  learner  does  not  want  to  be  made  a  receptacle  of  other  men's  words 
and  thoughts,  but  to  be  made  a  thinker  of  thoughts  and  awielderof  words 
himself." 

98.  A  Ready  Vocabulary.  Some  of  us  little  realize  how 
rapidly  we  think.  With  the  swiftness  of  lightning  our 
minds  turn  from  man  to  man,  from  America  to  China, 
from  our  own  planet  to  the  most  distant  star  and  the  in- 
finite space  beyond.  Thoughts  we  need  not  lack,  if  we  are 
awake.  The  difficulty  is  to  put  the  thoughts  on  paper 
before  they  fly  away  from  us.  It  takes  time  to  do  the 
manual  part  of  the  work.  Or,  it  may  be  that  some  of  us, 
even  with  good  minds,  do  little  thinking.  We  may  not 
have  a  large  number  of  words  at  our  disposal.  If  we  have 
an  abundant  vocabulary,  let  us  draw  from  it  freely  and 
continually.  If  we  are  without  this  means  of  expression, 
let  us  make  haste  to  acquire  it. 

If  life  is  merely  eating  and  drinking  and  sleeping,  to  be 
sure  we  need  but  few  words,  and  no  matter  what  our  native 
tongue,  we  can  soon  make  our  wants  felt  in  any  country ; 
but  if  we  care  to  be  mentally  alive,  —  to  take  an  intelligent 
interest  in  this  kaleidoscopic  world  of  ours,  —  we  must 
have  at  our  command  a  large  vocabulary.  Our  reading  will 
introduce  us  to  every  form  of  life  ;  our  conversation  will 
bring  us  in  touch  with  many  types  of  men  ;  and  when  it 
comes  to  writing,  we  need  words  without  stint,  nut   only 

142 


A  READY  VOCABULARY  I 43 

that  we  may  be  able  to  express  clearly  any  experience 
whatever,  but  also  that  we  may  write  easily  and  rapidly. 
When  our  thoughts  begin  to  come,  they  come  with  a  rush, 
and  then  is  the  time  for  the  words  to  fix  them. 

EXERCISE 

A  careful  examination  of  the  following  extract  will  show 
the  value  of  a  copious  and  ready  vocabulary.  Make  (i)  a 
list  of  the  words  which  seem  to  you  particularly  appropri- 
ate; (2)  a  list  of  the  words  for  which  it  is  difficult  to  find  an 

equivalent. 

Sunset  Colors 

Nature  has  a  thousand  ways  and  means  of  rising  above  herself, 
but  incomparably  the  noblest  manifestations  of  her  capability  of 
color  are  in  the  sunsets  among  the  high  clouds.  I  speak  especially 
of  the  moment  before  the  sun  sinks,  when  his  light  turns  pure 
rose  color,  and  when  this  light  falls  upon  a  zenith  covered  with 
countless  cloud  forms  of  inconceivable  delicacy,  threads  and  flakes 
of  vapor,  which  would  in  common  daylight  be  pure  snow-white, 
and  which  give,  therefore,  fair  field  to  the  tone  of  light.  There  is 
then  no  limit  to  the  multitude,  and  no  check  to  the  intensity,  of 
the  hues  assumed.  The  whole  sky,  from  the  zenith  to  the  horizon, 
becomes  one  molten,  mantling  sea  of  color  and  fire;  every  black 
bar  turns  into  massy  gold,  every  ripple  and  wave  into  unsullied, 
shadowless  crimson,  and  purple,  and  scarlet,  and  colors  for  which 
there  are  no  words  in  language  and  no  ideas  in  the  mind,  —  things 
which  can  only  be  conceived  while  they  are  visible,  —  the  intense 
hollow  blue  of  the  upper  sky  melting  through  it  all,  showing 
here  deep  and  pure  and  lightless,  there  modulated  by  the  filmy, 
formless  body  of  the  transparent  vapor,  till  it  is  lost  imperceptibly 
in  its  crimson  and  gold.  —  RusKiN. 

99.  Exact  Meanings  of  Words.  If  we  would  be  under- 
stood, we  must  decide  as  definitely  as  we  can  what   the 


144  THE   EXACT  WORD 

words  we  are  using  name  and  suggest  to  us  ;  then  we  must 
know  whether  the  same  naming  and  the  same  suggestions 
will  go  through  the  words  to  those  who  read.  At  this  point 
an  exercise  may  serve  two  purposes  :  first,  to  determine 
how  clear  are  our  own  ideas  ;  second,  to  show  how  difficult 
it  is  to  be  certain  of  transferring  them  and  the  accompany- 
ing suggestions  to  others. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  picture  do  you  see  the  instant  you  read  the 
word  dog"^  Tell  just  how  the  dog  looks;  whether  he  is 
standing  or  lying  down  ;  what  color  he  is,  etc. 

In  the  same  way  describe  the  picture  that  is  painted  by 
each  of  the  following  words  :  horse,  man,  cow,  meadow, 
alley,  river,  mountain.  In  these  cases  point  out  the  differ- 
ence between  naming  and  suggesting. 

2.  Write  carefully  and  fully  (i)  what  the  following  words 
name,  and  (2)  what  they  suggest :  vacation,  work,  play, 
recreation. 

3.  Exchange  the  papers  you  have  just  written,  and  under- 
score every  word  which  apparently  does  not  mean  to  you 
what  it  meant  to  the  writer. 

100.  Words  in  Good  Use.  If  we  wish  to  choose  the  most 
useful  words,  we  shall  select  those  which  are  in  good  use. 
We  shall  use  (i)  words  as  they  are  understood  throughout 
the  nation,  (2)  words  as  they  are  understood  at  the  present 
time,  (3)  words  as  they  are  understood  by  the  best  writers 
and  speakers. 

I .  Wo?'ds  as  they  a?'e  understood  throngJiont  the  nation. 
We  must  use  words  which  are  understood  in  the  same  sense 
in  all  sections  of  the  country.     In  some  parts  of  the  country 


GOOD  USE  145 

a  man  "reckons  "  that  his  friend  will  have  a  "right  "  good 
time,  and  the  friend  "allows"  that  he  "reckons"  so  too. 
But  reckofi  in  the  sense  of  "think,"  rigJit  in  the  sense  of 
"very,"  and  allow  in  the  sense  of  "admit,"  are  not  in 
national  use. 

Ask  persons  who  have  come  from  a  section  of  the  coun- 
try with  which  you  are  not  familiar,  if  they  recall  words 
whose  local  meaning  is  not  national.  Your  father  and 
mother  may  think  of  some.  Make  a  list  of  all  such  words 
and  any  other  "  local  "  words  of  which  you  know. 

2.  Words  as  they  are  u7uierstood  at  the  present  time. 
In  North  Carolina  a  young  man  from  a  neighboring  state 
was  enjoying  the  hospitality  of  three  attractive  young 
women.  Imagine  the  indignation  with  which  they  turned 
from  him  as  he  innocently  burst  out  with  the  remark, 
"  You  are  the  homeliest  girls  I  ever  met."  The  poor  fel- 
low meant  well.  To  him  the  word  still  retained  its  original 
meaning,  "homelike."  He  was  behind  the  times.  Now  the 
old  meaning  of  this  word  is  finer  than  the  new  —  there 
is  no  doubt  about  that ;  but  it  will  not  be  wise  for  us  to 
try  to  apply  it  to  young  women  as  long  as  the  majority 
of  those  who  use  good  English  at  once  think  of  the 
derived  meaning. 

If  we  call  a  pudding  "nice,"  or  speak  of  a  "nice"  day, 
one  can  hardlv  call  us  nice  about  our  English.  We  should 
not  use  the  word  in  the  original  sense  of  "  foolish,"  although 
five  hundred  years  ago  it  repeatedly  had  that  meaning ; 
but  we  are  supposed  to  know  that  the  later  meaning,  "  dis- 
criminating," or  "particular,"  is  the  one  current  among  the 
best  speakers  and  writers  ;  and  further,  it  is  our  business 
to  know  that  the  loose  meaning  first  referred  to  is  not  in 


146  THE   EXACT  WORD 

vogue  among  those  who  use  the  best  English.     Examples 
of  the  proper  use  of  this  much-abused  word  are  : 

The  lawyer  made  a  nice  point,  —  that  is,  he  showed  delicate 
discrimination. 

The  carving  on  that  chair  is  unusually  nice,  —  in  other  words, 
it  is  wrought  with  skill. 

3.  Words  as  they  arc  understood  by  the  best  writers  and 
speakers.  Sometimes  I  am  tempted  to  tell  a  friend  that 
he  is  a  "brick."  Perhaps  my  meaning  is  that  his  friends 
may  always  depend  upon  him  to  do  his  part.  Many  New 
Englanders  would  understand  the  expression,  even  if  they 
frowned  on  it.  But  if  I  were  to  apply  this  word  to  an 
Ohio  acquaintance,  he  might  be  as  much  disturbed  as  the 
"homely  "  young  women  ;  he  certainly  would  not  feel  com- 
plimented. Rough  and  ready  and  expressive  as  it  is,  at 
times,  it  has  not  yet  gained  the  recognition  of  those  who 
use  good  English.     It  is  slang. 

There  is  the  verb  "jolly,"  an  uncouth  bit  of  slang.  One 
who  is  really  fond  of  "jollying  "  others  is  tempted  to  think 
he  can  find  no  English  equivalent.  The  lazier  he  is,  the 
more  indifferent  he  is  about  his  reputation  as  a  linguist,  the 
less  he  will  try.  If  he  is  with  careless  speakers,  he  does  not 
mind  ;  but  when  the  word  slips  out  in  the  presence  of  per- 
sons of  culture,  he  takes  himself  to  task  for  such  laziness. 

No  matter  how  eager  we  may  be  to  increase  our  vocabu- 
lary, we  must  always  look  well  to  the  quality  of  our  acqui- 
sitions. Innumerable  words  we  may  well  crave  for  our  own 
variety  of  experience  and  thought,  but  we  should  choose 
those  that  are  current  among  persons  \n\\o  use  words  as 
they  are  understood  and  approved  by  the  body  of  repu- 
table  speakers  and  writers  in   our  nation  at  the  present 


HELPS   IN   CHOOSING  WORDS  147 

time.  Briefly,  we  should  choose  words  that  are  in  reputable, 
national,  3.nd  present  use. 

101.  Helps  in  choosing  Our  Words.  Here  are  several 
suggestions  which  should  be  helpful  in  choosing  words. 

I.  Use  the  dictionaries.  Dictionaries  help  us  to  determine 
whether  a  word  is  in  good  use.  They  are  misleading  unless 
we  use  them  carefully ;  for  if  unabridged,  they  give  the 
various  meanings  of  a  word,  some  so  old  that  they  are  no 
longer  in  good  use,  some  so  new  that  they  are  not  yet  in 
good  use,  and  may  never  be.  We  must  notice  whether 
the  dictionary  labels  certain  words  as  obsolete  ("  gone  out 
of  use"),  obsolescent  ("going  out  of  use"),  local,  colloquial 
("used  in  conversation"),  or  slang.  We  go  to  a  dictionary 
for  definite  information  about  words,  just  as  we  go  to  a 
directory  to  get  definite  information  about  people.  We  are 
no  more  justified  in  using  a  word  because  it  is  in  the  dic- 
tionary than  we  should  be  in  calling  upon  a  person  because 
his  name  is  in  the  directory. 

One  of  the  best  habits  young  writers  can  form  is  to  use 
the  dictionary  continually.  An  abridged  dictionary,  good 
as  far  as  it  goes,  is  by  no  means  sufficient  for  a  pupil  of 
high-school  attainments  and  ambitions.  In  some  way  secure 
Webster's  International,  or  one  eciually  good,  and  keep  it 
on  your  table  or  within  arm's  reach. 

2.  Read  reputable  ivriters.  A  man  is  known  by  the  com- 
pany he  keeps.  Good  communications  inspire  good  man- 
ners. Aside  from  the  value  of  the  thoughts  of  our  best 
writers,  there  is  a  charm  due  to  their  language.  Through 
the  works  that  wc  read  again  and  again,  long  after  the 
subject-matter  is  familiar,  we  unconsciously  come  to  appre- 
ciate and  to  use  choice  English.    These  writers  achieved 


148  THE   EXACT  WORD 

distinction.  Let  us  try  to  do  likewise ;  happy  at  least  in 
this,  that  we  may  use  their  tools. 

3.  Hear  reputable  speakers.  We  may  learn  much  from 
.men  and  women  who  use  words  that  no  educated  person 

need  misunderstand  or  be  ashamed  of.  Now  and  then  we 
hear  some  one  whose  very  speech  is  charming,  no  matter 
what  he  says,  just  as  we  occasionally  meet  a  person  whose 
every  movement  is  graceful,  or  another  whose  every  act  is 
tactful.  Whenever  we  meet  such  a  speaker,  we  should  seize 
the  opportunity  to  listen. 

4.  Be  tho7-onghly  alive.  By  this  time  it  must  be  clear 
that  one  who  is  to  become  a  good  writer  must  be  thor- 
oughly alive.  He  must  con  his  dictionary  and  absorb  his 
grammar,  but  he  should  also  enter  with  his  whole  soul  into 
life.  He  should  love  life;  he  should  steadily  enrich  his  life; 
and  as  he  records  his  own  experiences  and  thoughts,  he  will 
always  be  eager  to  learn  by  eye  and  ear  from  others  who 
are  giving  expression  to  their  best  thoughts. 

5 .  Fix  the  exact  meanings  of  words.  An  exact  vocabu- 
lary is  just  as  necessary  as  a  large  one.  Dictionaries  and 
other  books  give  lists  of  synonyms  not  because  one  of 
these  words  is  as  good  as  another,  but  because  each,  though 
somewhat  like  the  rest,  is  in  some  respect  different  ;  and 
this  very  difference  serves  to  point  out  a  delicate  distinc- 
tion which  none  of  the  other  words  would  suggest.  Many 
of  us  use  lie  or  lay,  teach  or  learn,  may  or  can,  bring  or 
carry,  without  discrimination.  Sometimes  we  come  pretty 
near  saying  what  we  mean  ;  at  other  times  we  entirely  miss 
the  mark.  It  should  be  our  habit,  upon  meeting  a  new 
word,  to  discover  its  proper  meaning  and  to  limit  ourselves 
to  that  meaning. 


WORDS  WORTH   STUDYING  149 

102.  Words  Worth  Studying.  In  order  to  gain  practice 
in  determining  the  precise  meanings,  let  us  study  certain 
words  that  are  used  carelessly,  or  with  hesitation,  and  others 
that  offer  opportunity  for  nice  distinction. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  sentences  to  illustrate  the  correct  use  of  each 
noun  in  the  following  list  ^ : 

Adherence,  adhesion  {adhere7ice  to  a  party,  or  to  rules ;  the 
adhesion  of  mortar  to  brick). 

Character  ("what  a  man  is  "),  reputation  ("what  others  think 
of  him"). 

Council  {^.  family  cotincii,  the  common  coi/ncil),  counsel  ("It 
was  ill  cojmsel  had  misled  the  girl "). 

Custom,  habit.  {^'^ Custom  is  a  frecjuent  repetition  of  the  same 
act;  habit,  the  effect  of  such  repetition."  The  custom  of  early 
rising  may  become  a  good  hakit.  "A  custom  is  followed ;  a  habit 
is  acquired.") 

Discovery  (an  "uncovering"  of  something  already  in  existence, 
as  a  star). 

Invention  ("the  contrivance  and  production  of  something  that 
did  not  before  exist,"  as  the  telephone). 

Emigration  {e, '^^ ov\i,^'  -\- mii^i-are,  "to  move"),  immigration 
(in,  "in,"  +  migrare'). 

Majority  ("more  than  half  the  whole  number"),  plurality. 
("When  there  are  more  than  two  candidates,  the  one  who  re- 
ceives the  phirality  of  votes  may  have  less  than  a  majority."^ 
If  A  receives  50  votes,  B  40,  and  C  30,  A  has  a  plurality  of  10 
over  B.    Does  A  have  a  majority? 

Middle,  center.  (Center  is  often  more  precise  than  iniddle ; 
compare  the  center  and  the  middle  of  a  room.) 

1  For  further  information  consult  dictionaries  and  books  of  synonyms.  In  tliis 
list,  and  in  others  that  follow,  the  object  is  to  point  out  the  fundamental  meaning 
of  a  word. 


150  THE    EXACT   WORD 

Person,  party.  {\  f^ar/v  is  a  company  oi  ffrsoiis,  unless  a.  per- 
son be  ^ party  to  a  contract.) 

Plenty  ("a  full  supply  "),  abundance  ("a  great  plenty,  as  much 
as  can  be  wanted,  or  more"). 

Vocation,  avocation.  (^Avocation  is  "that  which  calls  one  away 
from  one's  proper  business  —  from  one's  vocatio?iy) 

2.  In  order  to  fix  the  meanings  of  the  verl?s  in  the  follow- 
ing list,  use  each  of  them  in  a  sentence  of  your  own  : 

Begin  (enter  upon  something  new),  start  (as  an  intransitive 
verb,  suggests  motion).    (As  he  began  to  write,  the  train  started.) 

Bring  (take  along  in  coming),  fetch  (go  and  bring),  carry  (take 
along  with  one). 

Can  (ability),  may  (liberty,  probability). 

Effect  (accomplish),  affect  (act  upon,  or  influence).  (Some 
persons  are  affected  by  the  weather.    He  effected  his  purpose.) 

Happen  (come  to  pass),  transpire  (come  to  light). 

Lay  (transitive),  lie  (intransitive). 

Learn  (intransitive),  teach  (transitive). 

Raise  (transitive),  rise  (intransitive). 

Set  (transitive),  sit  (intransitive). 

Stop  (cease  to  move),  stay  (remain). 

3.  Illustrate  in  sentences  of  your  own  the  meaning  of 
each  word  in  this  viiscellaneoiis  group : 

Apparently  (seemingly),  evidently  (clearly),  manifestly  (in  a 
manner  very  distinctly  evident). 

Apt,  likely,  liable.  {^Apt  indicates  physical  or  natural  inclination  : 
as,  apt  to  work  faithfully  ;  apt  to  mold.  ''''Likely  may  suggest  the 
same  idea,  or  it  may  express  mere  external  probability  or  chance  : 
as,  he  is  likely  to  come  at  any  moment.  Liable  in  this  connection 
is  properly  used  only  of  exposure  to  evil :  as,  liable  to  accident ; 
liable  to  be  hurt,  that  is,  exposed  to  the  danger  of  being  hurt.") 

Awful  (awe-inspiring). 

Each  ("all  of  any  number,  considered  one  by  one"),  every 
("differs  from  each  in  giving  less  prominence  to  the  selection  of 


WORDS  WORTH   STUDYING  15  I 

the  individual  ").  "  Father  gave  eacli  of  the  children  something  " 
calls  attention  to  e-ocry  child  separately.  "'  There  was  a  gift  for 
every  child"  means  that  d'// the  children  were  remembered  with 
a  gift,  —  no  child  was  forgotten. 

Grand  (used  in  connection  with  something  which  really  has 
grandeur). 

Splendid  (used  in  connection  with  somethingwhich  has  splendor). 

Healthy  (in  good  health,  as  a  Iwalthy  child),  healthful 
(health  giving,  as  healthful  exercise,  healthful  climate),  whole- 
some (tending  to  promote  health  of  body  or  mind,  as  ^ohole- 
some  food,  wholesome  truths). 

Oral  (spoken),  verbal  (in  words,  whether  spoken  or  written). 

New,  novel  («^eY'/ means  "strange"  as  well  as  "new"). 

Real  (as  adjective,  "She  is  real");  really  (as  adverb,  "It  is 
really  good  "). 

Quite  (wholly). 

Some  (as  an  adjective),  something  (as  a  noun),  somewhat  (as 
an  adverb). 

We  have  considered  the  value  of  an  unstinted  supply  of 
words.  We  can  see  that  it  is  of  prime  importance  to  have 
such  command  of  them  that  they  will  come  to  the  front 
spontaneously  ;  and  we  know  it  will  encourage  us  if  we  can 
see  that  we  are  adding  to  our  vocabulary  day  by  day.  We 
realize,  however,  the  value  of  making  these  additions  care- 
fully, for  the  words  that  will  prove  helpful  are  those  that 
are  in  good  use.  It  should  be  our  habit,  therefore,  to  find 
out  just  what  words  mean  to  reputable  speakers  and  writers 
in  our  nation  at  the  present  time.  While  adding  to  our 
store  we  must  remember  that  the  way  to  make  our  new 
possessions  permanent  is  to  use  them.  It  goes  without 
saying  that  we  can  use  them  best  as  we  talk  and  write 
about  some  subject  that  interests  us  ;  but  use  them  we 
must,  and  use  them  accurately. 


CHAPTER   XIII 
THE  FORCIBLE  WORD 

"  Just  the  right  way  of  saying  the  thing  that  is  to  be  said  is  an  art  more 
to  be  desired  than  much  knowledge,  and  one  that  goes  farther  in  making 
life  agreeable."  —  The  Century. 

103.  The  Choice  of  Forcible  Words.  A  correct  speaker 
makes  himself  understood.  A  forcible  speaker  not  only 
makes  himself  understood,  but  expresses  himself  in  such  a 
way  that  his  hearers  are  interested  and  are  likely  to  remem- 
ber what  he  says.  A  correct  speaker  may  put  his  audience 
to  sleep  ;  a  forcible  speaker  keeps  them  wide-awake.  It  is 
worth  our  while,  then,  to  try  to  use  language  which  is  both 
clear  and  forcible.  Hence  we  should  choose  (i)  simple 
words  and   (2)  specific  words. 

104.  Simple  Words.  The  Reverend  Robert  CoUyer  has 
told  us  how  he  grew  fond  of  simple  words.    He  says  : 

"  Do  you  want  to  know  how  I  manage  to  talk  to  you  in 
this  simple  Saxon  }  I  will  tell  you.  I  read  Bunyan,  Crusoe, 
and  Goldsmith  when  I  was  a  boy,  morning,  noon,  and  night. 
All  the  rest  was  task  work.  These  were  my  delight,  with 
the  stories  in  the  Bible  and  in  Shakespeare,  when  at  last  the 
mighty  master  came  within  our  doors.  ...  I  took  to  these 
as  I  took  to  milk,  and,  without  the  least  idea  what  I  was 
doing,  got  the  taste  for  simple  words  into  the  very  fiber  of 
my  nature.  .  .  .  I  could  not  go  home  for  Christmas,  1839, 
and  was  feeling  sad  about  it  all,  for  I  was  only  a  boy  ;  .  .  . 
an  old  farmer  came  in  and  said,  'I  notice  thou'rt  fond  of 

I  1^2 


SIMPLE  WORDS  153 

reading,  so  I  brought  thee  summat  to  read.'  It  was  Irving's 
'  Sketch-Book.'  I  had  never  heard  of  it.  I  went  at  it  and 
was  as  'them  that  dream.'  No  such  dehght  had  touched 
me  since  the  okl  days  of  Crusoe.  I  saw  the  Hudson  and 
the  Catskills,  took  poor  Rip  at  once  into  my  heart,  as  every- 
body does,  pitied  Ichabod  while  I  laughed  at  him,  thought 
the  old  Dutch  feast  a  most  admirable  thing,  and  long  be- 
fore I  was  through,  all  regret  at  my  lost  Christmas  had  gone 
down  the  wind,  and  I  had  found  out  there  are  books  and 
books.  That  vast  hunger  never  left  me." 

EXERCISES 

1.  Let  us  see  what  we  can  learn  from  Bunyan.  As  you 
read  aloud  the  following  selection,  dwell  on  those  simple, 
telling  words  and  phrases  which  please  you  most. 

From  "  The  Pilgrbi's  Progress  " 

Neither  could  they,  with  all  the  skill  they  had,  get  again  to  the 
stile  that  night.  Wherefore,  at  last,  lighting  under  a  little  shelter, 
they  sat  down  there  until  the  day  brake ;  but,  being  weary,  they 
fell  asleep.  Now  there  was  not  far  from  the  place  where  they 
lay,  a  castle  called  Doubting  Castle,  the  owner  whereof  was 
Giant  Despair;  and  it  was  in  his  grounds  they  now  were  sleep- 
ing. Wherefore  he,  getting  up  in  the  morning  early,  and  walking 
up  and  down  in  his  fields,  caught  Christian  and  Hopeful  asleep 
in  his  grounds.  Then,  with  a  grim  and  surly  voice,  he  bid  them 
awake ;  and  asked  them  whence  they  were,  and  what  they  did  in 
his  grounds.  They  told  him  they  were  pilgrims,  and  that  they 
had  lost  their  way.  Then  said  the  Giant,  You  have  this  night 
trespassed  on  me,  by  trampling  in  and  lying  on  my  grounds,  and 
therefore  you  must  go  along  with  me.  So  they  were  forced  to 
go,  because  he  was  stronger  than  they.  They  also  had  but  little 
to  say,  for  they  knew  themselves  in  a  fault.    The  Giant,  therefore, 


154  ^^^H^   FORCIBLE   WORD 

drove  lliem  bcfDic  him,  ami  piil  them  into  his  castle,  into  a  very 
dark  dungeon,  nasty  and  stinking  to  the  spirits  of  these  two  men. 
Here,  then,  they  lay  from  Wednesday  morning  till  Saturday  night, 
without  one  bit  of  bread,  or  drop  of  drink,  or  light,  or  any  to  ask 
how  they  did.  They  were,  therefore,  here  in  evil  case,  and  were 
far  from  friends  and  acquaintance.  Now  in  this  place  Christian 
had  double  sorrow,  because  it  was  through  his  unadvised  counsel 
they  were  brought  into  this  distress. 

Now  Giant  Despair  had  a  wife,  and  her  name  was  Diffidence. 
So  when  he  was  gone  to  bed,  he  told  his  wife  what  he  had  done  ; 
to  wit,  that  he  had  taken  a  couple  of  prisoners  and  cast  them  into 
his  dungeon,  for  trespassing  on  his  grounds.  Then  he  asked  her 
also  what  he  had  best  to  do  further  to  them.  _  So  she  asked  him 
what  they  were,  whence  they  came,  and  whither  they  were  bound  ; 
and  he  told  her.  Then  she  counseled  him  that  when  he  arose  in 
the  morning  he  should  beat  them  without  any  mercy.  So,  w^hen 
he  arose,  he  getteth  him  a  grievous  crab-tree  cudgel,  and  goes 
down  into  the  dungeon  to  them,  and  there  first  falls  to  rating  of 
them  as  if  they  were  dogs,  although  they  never  gave  him  a  word 
of  distaste.  Then  he  falls  upon  them,  and  beats  them  fearfully, 
in  such  sort  that  they  w^ere  not  able  to  help  themselves,  or  to 
turn  them  upon  the  floor.  This  done,  he  withdraws  and  leaves 
them  there  to  condole  their  misery,  and  to  mourn  under  their 
distress.  So  all  that  day  they  spent  the  time  in  nothing  but  sighs 
and  bitter  lamentations.  The  next  night,  she,  talking  with  her 
husband  about  them  further,  and  understanding  they  were  yet 
alive,  did  advise  him  to  counsel  them  to  make  away  with  them- 
selves. So  when  morning  was  come,  he  goes  to  them  in  a  surly 
manner  as  before,  and  perceiving  them  to  be  very  sore  with  the 
stripes  that  he  had  given  them  the  day  before,  he  told  them  that, 
since  they  were  never  like  to  come  out  of  that  place,  their  only 
way  would  be  forthwith  to  make  an  end  of  themselves,  either 
with  knife,  halter,  or  poison  ;  for  why,  said  he,  should  you  choose 
life,  seeing  it  is  attended  with  so  much  l)itterness  ?  But  they 
desired  him  to  let  them  go.  With  that  lie  looked  ugly  upon 
them,  and,  rushing  to  them,  had  doubtless  made  an  end  of  them 


SPECIFIC  WORDS  1 55 

himself,  but  that  he  fell  into  one  of  his  fits  (f(jr  he  sometimes,  in 
sunshiny  weather,  fell  into  fits),  and  lost  for  a  time  the  use  of  his 
hand ;  wherefore  he  withdrew,  and  left  them  as  before,  to  con- 
sider what  to  do.  Then  did  the  prisoners  consult  between  them- 
selves, whether  it  was  best  to  take  his  counsel  or  no;  and  thus 
they  began  to  discourse. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  words  and  expressions  that  seem  to 
you  simple  and  forcible,  and  discuss  them.  Probably  you 
will  include  some  of  the  following  :  grim,  surly,  whence 
they  were,  in  e\'il  case,  what  they  were,  whither  they  were 
bound,  beat,  grievous  crab-tree  cudgel,  falls  to  rating,  a 
word  of  distaste,  to  turn  them  upon  the  floor,  never  like  to 
come  out  of  that  place,  make  an  end  of  themselves,  they 
desired  him  to  let  them  go. 

Note.  If  you  really  like  this  simple  Saxon,  —  whether  you  care 
for  the  story  is  another  matter,  —  you  will  find  it  worth  while  to  read 
several  pages  of  "  The  Pilgrim's  Progress  "  merely  for  the  style. 

3.  Take  from  one  of  the  six  sources  mentioned  by 
Mr.  Collyer  an  interesting  page,  and  study  the  choice  of 
words.    Write  your  report. 

105.  Specific  Words.  We  have  words  that  are  general  and 
words  that  are  specific.  A  general  word  includes  a  large 
number  of  ideas  ;  a  specific  word  names  one  idea.  A  gen- 
eral word  names  a  class  of  objects  ;  a  specific  word  singles- 
out  from  the  class  an  individual .  It  is  interesting,  as  far  as 
it  goes,  to  know  that  you  have  heard  a  bird  singing,  but 
one  who  cares  for  birds  would  know  more  definitely  what 
you  had  in  mind  if  you  used  the  word  thnts/i,  —  still  more 
definitely  if  you  spoke  of  the  jvbtJi  or  of  the  wood  tlirusJi. 

On  many  occasions  it  serves  our  purpose  to  use  the 
words  viaii,  ivoman,  child,  book,  paper,  but  we  oftener  wish 


156  THE  FORCIBLE  WORD 

to  know  the  particular  name  that  distinguishes  an  individual 
from  the  rest  of  his  class.  If  I  say,  "I  met  an  animal  this 
morning,"  the  word  "animal  "  names  something, —  although 
with  considerable  vagueness.  The  substitution  of  "dog" 
would  give  my  hearers  information  more  definite.  If  I  say, 
"  I  met  a  collie,"  I  share  with  them  much  more  of  my  ex- 
perience. And  if  I  say,  "I  met  Jack,"  provided  they  know 
Jack,  they  appreciate  to  some  extent  the  feelings  of  delight 
with  which  I  saw  my  pet  bounding  toward  me.  Now  "  dog  " 
names  the  idea  I  have  to  communicate  ;  but  I  have  an  an- 
nouncement less  tame  and  prosaic  than  the  meeting  of  a 
dog.  I  wish  them  to  share  with  me  the  emotions  that  were 
mine  as  I  met  my  dog.  Therefore  I  use  a  word  that  arouses 
in  them  some  such  feelings.  This  word  "Jack"  not  only 
points  out  the  idea,  but  in  addition  it  gives  the  suggestions 
I  wish  to  put  into  the  picture. 

In  calling  a  piece  of  writing  "good,"  we  may  cover  a 
multitude  of  excellent  equalities.  If  we  choose  to  be  more 
definite,  we  may  use  some  such  words  as  the  following : 
clear,  suggestive,  vigorous,  careful,  earnest,  humorous,  to 
the  point,  specific,  smooth,  comprehensive,  easy,  compact, 
coherent,  straightforward,  simple,  direct,  timely.  Instead  of 
the  general  terms  "bad"  or  "poor"  or  "uninteresting,"  we 
can  use  such  words  as  these:  abrupt,  dry,  general,  careless, 
confusing,  vague,  incoherent,  wordy,  tame,  weak,  bookish. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Study  the  choice  of  words  in  the  following  extracts. 
Are  the  most  suggestive  words  general  or  specific  .-*  Com- 
ment on  the  following :  picturesque,  morning,  strolled, 
venders,  trinkets,  tackeys  ("bony  nags"),  steeds. 


SPECIFIC  WORDS  157 

1.  The  old  city  of  St.  Augustine  had  never  been  more  pic- 
turesque and  full  of  color  than  it  was  that  morning.  Its  narrow- 
thoroughfares,  with  the  wide,  overhanging  upper  balconies  that 
shaded  them,  were  busy  and  gay.  Strangers  strolled  along,  stop- 
ping in  groups  before  the  open  fronts  of  the  fruit  shops,  or  were 
detained  by  eager  venders  of  flowers  and  orange-wood  walking 
sticks.  There  were  shining  shop  windows  full  of  photographs  and 
trinkets  of  pink  shell-work  and  palmetto.  There  were  pink  feather 
fans,  and  birds  in  cages,  and  strange  shapes  and  colors  of  flowers 
and  fruits,  and  stuffed  alligators.  The  narrow  street  was  full  of 
laughter  and  the  sound  of  voices.  Lumbering  carriages  clattered 
along  the  palmetto  pavement,  and  boys  and  men  rode  by  on 
quick,  wild  little  horses  as  if  for  dear  life,  and  to  the  frequent 
peril  of  persons  on  foot.  Sometimes  these  small  dun  cream- 
colored  marsh  tackeys  needed  only  a  cropped  mane  to  prove 
their  suspected  descent  from  the  little  steeds  of  the  Northmen, 
or  their  cousinship  to  those  of  the  Greek  friezes  ;  they  were,  in- 
deed, a  part  of  the  picturesqueness  of  the  city. 

2.  The  ship  was  talking,  as  the  sailors  say,  loudly,  treading  the 
innumerable  ripples  with  an  incessant  weltering  splash. 

3.  Down  I  sat  to  wait  for  darkness,  and  made  a  hearty  meal 
of  biscuit.  It  was  a  night  out  of  ten  thousand  for  my  purpose. 
The  fog  had  now  buried  all  heaven.  As  the  last  rays  of  day- 
light dwindled  and  disappeared,  absolute  blackness  settled  down 
on  Treasure  Island.  And  when,  at  last,  I  shouldered  the  coracle 
and  groped  my  way  stumblingly  out  of  the  hollow  where  I  had 
supped,  there  were  but  two  points  visible  on  the  whole  anchorage. 

2.  Find  less  specific  words  for  these  :  buried,  dwindled, 
blackness,  shouldered,  coracle,  groped,  stumblingly,  hollow, 
anchorage. 

3.  In  the  first  extract  substitute  general  words  for  spe- 
cific and  rewrite  the  paragraph. 

Your  study  of  these  few  passages  leads  you  to  con- 
clude, does  it  not,  that  the  specific  word  has  great  power  of 


158  THE   FORCIBLE  WORD 

suggestion  ?  Since  it  is  often  your  purpose  to  suggest 
more  than  you  say,  you  will  frequently  feel  the  need  of 
specific  words.  General  words  will  come  to  you ;  for  spe- 
cific words  you  should  always  be  on  the  hunt. 

106.  Figurative  Words.  In  talking  to  a  companion,  you 
would  be  more  likely  to  speak  of  ''the  red  sun  "  and  "the 
hot  sky,"  than  to  use  such  language  as  Coleridge's  : 

All  in  a  hot  and  copper  sky 
The  bloody  sun  at  noon 
Right  up  above  the  mast  did  stand 
No  bigger  than  the  moon. 

Again,  we  oftener  say,  "  The  sun  was  shining  bright  upon 
the  mountain  tops,"  than  "The  early  sunshine  was  already 
pouring  its  gold  upon  the  mountain  tops."  Yet  Hawthorne's 
expression  is  beautiful. 

Now  what  have  these  words  done  ?  "Hot"  is  literal  ;  we 
all  understand  it.  "  Copper  "  tells  us  what  the  sky  looked  like. 
Everybody  has  seen  the  sun  look  red,  but  it  is  striking  to 
call  it  as  red  as  blood.  Again,  we  generally  think  of  the 
sun  as  yellow,  but  to  say  it  is  so  much  gold  is  to  remind 
us  sharply  of  the  metal  it  resembles.  These  writers  have 
not  used  "copper,"  "blood,"  and  "gold"  to  say  precisely 
wdiat  they  meant,  but  to  suggest  resemblances.  Words 
used  for  what  they  suggest,  in  a  sense  not  exactly  literal, 
we  call  figurative. 

107.  Similes  and  Metaphors.  We  are  continually  mak- 
ing comparisons  between  objects  of  the  same  kind  ;  for 
example,  "The  library  is  more  beautiful  than  the  church," 
"This  stone  is  like  granite,"  "Lincoln  may  have  been  as 
great  a  man  as  Washington  ";  but  these  are  mere  com- 
parisons.   Perhaps  nearly  as  often  we  allude  to  similarities 


FIGURATIVE  WORDS  1 59 

between  objects  of  different  kinds.  We  do  this  in  two 
ways.  Sometimes  we  say  that  one  thing  is  like  a)iother ; 
for  example,  "The  army  stood  hke  a  wall,"  "For  he  that 
wavereth  is  like  a  wave  of  the  sea  driven  with  the  wind 
and  tossed."  Holmes  has  been  likened  to  a  fountain,  con- 
stantly bubbling  over  with  sweet  feeling  and  bright  thought. 
Such  figures  of  speech  are  called  similes. 

Sometimes  we  do  not  express  resemblance  ;  we  imply  it. 
We  call  one  tiling  by  the  name  of  another ;  for  example, 
"Bread  is  the  staff  of  life,"  "The  general  was  a  tower  of 
strength,"  "He  is  a  dynamo  in  breeches,"  "Adversity  is 
the  grindstone  of  life."  These  figures  are  called  metaphors, 
a  Greek  word  which  means  canying  over.  A  metaphor  car- 
ries over  the  name  of  one  thing  to  another. 


EXERCISES 

1.   Study  carefully  the  following  examples  of  simile : 

1.  How  far  that  little  candle  throws  his  beams  ! 
So  shines  a  good  deed  in  a  naughty  world. 

2.  Good  nature  is  the  most  precious  gift  of  Heaven,  spread- 
ing itself  like  oil  over  the  troubled  sea  of  thought,  and  keeping 
the  mind  smooth  and  equable  in  the  roughest  weather. 

3.  Men  whose  lives  glided  on,  like  rivers  that  water  the  wood- 

lands. 
Darkened  by  shadows  of  earth,  but  reflecting  an  image  of 
heaven. 

2.  Make  a  careful  study  of  the  following  examples  of 
metaphor : 

1.  Antony  is  but  a  limb  of  Cresar. 

2.  Aud  the  tongue  is  a  fire. 


l6o  THE   FORCIBLE  WORD 

3.  Sometimes  it  was  simj)ly  smooth  and  clear 
For  the  gladness  of  heaven  to  shine 

through,  and  here 
He  had  caught  the  nodding  bulrush-tops 
And  hung  them  thickly  with  diamond-drops, 
That  crystalled  the  beams  of  moon  and  sun, 
And  made  a  star  of  every  one. 

4.  Sir  Launfal's  raiment  thin  and  spare 
Was  idle  mail  'gainst  the  barbed  air. 

5.  Nor  would  I  fight  with  iron  laws,  in  the  end 
Found  golden. 

6.  When  clocks 
Throbb'd  thunder  thro'  the  palace  floors,  or  call'd 
On  flying  Time  from  all  their  silver  tongues. 

7.  Tubal.    Your  daughter  spent  in  Genoa,  as  I  heard,  in  one 

night  fourscore  ducats. 
Shylock.    Thou  stickest  a  dagger  in  me. 

The  Point  of  Resemblance.  When  we  say  a  man  is  a  fox, 
we  have  in  mind  the  characteristic  common  to  both, —  cun- 
ning. It  is  by  fixing  the  attention  on  the  point  of  resem- 
blance that  a  figure  makes  an  idea  specific. 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  metaphors  and  similes,  what  is  the  point 
of  resemblance  that  suggests  the  comparison  } 

1 .  A  fiery  temper  ;  a  rippling  laugh  ;  glassy  eyes  ;  golden  hair  ; 
silvery  waves  ;  red-hot  "  liner  "  ;  iron  muscle  ;  catlike  step  ;  a  ray 
of  hope  ;  growling  thunder  ;  mackerel  sky ;  a  sea  of  upturned 
faces ;  the  snakelike  caravan ;  crawling  centuries ;  a  striking 
thought ;  life's  fitful  fever  ;  Stonewall  Jackson  ;  a  hard  heart ;  the 
silver  moon. 

2.  The  tongue  of  the  just  is  as  choice  silver. 

3.  Boston  is  sometimes  called  the  hub  of  Massachusetts,  and 
Worcester  the  heart  of  the  commonwealth. 


SIMILES  AND   METAPHORS  l6l 

Mixed  MctapJiors.  In  using  figurative  language  we  must 
be  careful  not  to  allow  any  confusion  or  mixing  of  meta- 
phors.   For  example  : 

1.  This  world  with  all  its  trials  is  the  furnace  through  which 
the  soul  must  pass  and  be  developed  before  it  is  ripe  for  the 
next  world. 

2.  He  was  unable  to  steer  his  ship  over  the  rough  road  of 
public  sentiment. 

3.  Every  one  thought  the  rebellion  had  been  rooted  out ;  but  it 
was  soon  rekindled  with  renewed  vigor. 

4.  The  chariot  of  Revolution  is  rolling,  and  gnashing  its  teeth 
as  it  rolls. 

It  is  also  cjuite  as  important  not  to  use  metaphorical  and 
literal  language  in  the  same  sentence;  for  example,  "Is 
it  the  voice  of  thunder  or  of  my  father .? " 

EXERCISES 

1.   Discuss  the  following  : 

1.  Boyle  was  the  father  of  chemistry  and  brother  to  the  Earl 
of  Cork. 

2.  An  orator  at  one  of  the  university  unions  bore  off  the  palm 
of  merit  when  he  declared  that  "  the  British  lion,  whether  it  is 
roaming  in  the  deserts  of  India  or  climbing  the  forests  of  Canada, 
will  not  draw  in  its  horns  or  retire  into  its  shell." 

3.  "Brethren,"  said  an  earnest  exhorter  to  a  body  of  religious 
workers,  "brethren,  remember  that  there  is  nothing  which  will 
kindle  the  fires  of  religion  in  the  human  heart  like  water  from  the 
fountains  of  life." 

2,   Discuss  these  two  versions  : 

1.  The  cares  and  responsibilities  of  a  sovereign  often  dis- 
turb sleep. 

2.  Uneasy  lies  the  head  that  wears  a  crown. 


1 62  THIO    FORCIBLE    WORD 

3.  Change  the  lollowing  figurative  expressions  to  literal 
and  discuss  the  difference  in  effect  : 

1.  She  si)eaks  poniards,  and  every  word  stabs. 

2.  At  one  stride  comes  the  dark. 

3.  He  has  spent  all  his  life  in  letting  down  empty  buckets  into 
empty  wells ;  and  he  is  frittering  away  his  age  in  trying  to  draw 
them  up  again. 

4.  Figures  that  come  to  us  without  seeking  are  likely  to 
be  the  most  simple  and  natural.  Do  any  of  these  we  hav* 
been  examining  lack  naturalness  and  spontaneity  ? 

5.  A  figure  often  surprises  us.  Sometimes  its  purpose 
is  not  to  add  beauty,  but  merely  to  afford  amusement. 
Are  there  any  examples  of  amusing  figurative  language  in 
this  chapter  ? 

108.  Metonymy.  In  choosing  the  specific  rather  than 
the  general,  we  sometimes  put  one  thing  for  another  that  is 
frequently  associated  with  it.  This  figure  is  metonymy. 
For  example  : 

1.  The  ballot  is  more  powerful  than  the  bullet. 

2.  Who  .steals  my  purse  steals  trash. 

EXERCISE 

Turn  the  following  figurative  language  into  literal  state- 
ments. In  each  instance  which  version  do  you  prefer,  and 
why  .-* 

1.  Bring  down  my  gray  hairs  with  sorrow  to  the  grave. 

2.  In  the  sweat  of  thy  face  shalt  thou  eat  bread. 

3.  They  always  set  a  good  table. 

4.  Three  cheers  for  the  red,  white,  and  blue  ! 

5.  The  lamp  is  burning. 

6.  The  chair  called  the  house  to  order. 

7.  Is  the  kettle  boiling? 


OTHER   FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  163 

109.  Personification.  When  metaphor  and  metonymy 
ascribe  persunaUty  to  things  inanimate,  they  become  per- 
sonification ;  for  example,  ''The  storm  rages,"  "The  ship 
has  found  herself,"  "  Must  I  thus  leave  thee,  Paradise  ?  " 

110.  Apostrophe.  Furthermore,  addressing  inanimate 
things,  or  persons  not  present,  as  if  they  could  answer,  is 
sometimes  called  apostrophe .  The  word  suggests  the  turn- 
ing from  the  natural  course  of  the  thought  in  order  to  do 
this.    For  example  : 

1.  Ye  principalities  and  powers, 

That  never  tasted  death  ! 
Witness  from  off  your  heavenly  towers 
Our  act  of  Christian  faith. 

2.  Milton  !  thou  should'st  be  living  at  this  hour: 

England  hath  need  of  thee. 

EXERCISE 

Are  the  following  examples  of  personification  or  of 
apostrophe .'' 

1.  Farewell,  happy  fields, 

Where  joy  forever  dwells  !   Hail,  horrors,  hail ! 
And  thou,  profoundcst  hell  ! 

2.  Fair  Science  frowned  not  on  his  humble  birth 
And  Melancholy  marked  him  for  her  own. 

3.  Advance,  then,  ye  future  generations  !  We  would  hail  you, 
as  you  rise  in  your  long  succession,  to  fill  the  places  which  we 
now  fill,  and  to  taste  the  blessings  of  existence  where  we  are 
passing,  and  soon  shall  have  passed,  our  own  human  duration. 
We  bid  you  welcome  to  this  ])leasant  land  of  the  fathers. 

111.  The  Transferred  Epithet.  We  have  an  effective 
way  of  transferring  ei)ithets,  of  extending  the  attributes 
of   one  subject   to  another   with   which   it    is    connected. 


164  '  THK    FORCIBLE   WORD 

"  The  expression  of  such  a  thought,"  says  one  writer, 
"  must  be  considered  as  a  figure,  because  the  attribute  is 
not  applicable  to  the  subject  in  any  proper  sense."  He 
gives  as  examples  : 

Casting  a  dim,  7-eliij[ioiis  light. 
He  drew  his  coward  sword. 
The  JdgJi-cliinbing  hill. 
He  steers  \\\t  fearless  ship. 
And  the  merry  bells  ring  round. 
And  the  yVv////^;' rebecks  sound. 

In  all  our  study  of  figures  we  shall  find  that  the  most 
simple  and  natural  are  the  most  telling.  Unconsciously  we 
shall  cull  from  common  experiences  figures  that  will  illus- 
trate and  give  point  to  our  thoughts.  A  reasonable  amount 
of  care  should  keep  us  from  mixing  metaphors  and  from 
using  figures  as  mere  ornament.  If  it  is  not  perfectly  clear 
to  you  that  we  use  figures  as  naturally  as  we  breathe,  notice 
the  language  of  the  people  whom  you  hear  talk  from  day 
to  day. 

EXERCISES 

1.  In  the  two  following  extracts,  how  is  force  secured  } 
In  the  second,  note  the  use  of  the  following  words:  clump- 
ing, twittering,  commanding,  casting,  nick,  bleak,  closure, 
burn,  torn,  tinged,  swim,  massacre. 

I .  The  schoolboy  whips  his  taxed  top ;  the  beardless  youth 
manages  his  taxed  horse  with  a  taxed  bridle  on  a  taxed  road  ; 
and  the  dying  Englishman,  pouring  his  medicine,  which  has  paid 
seven  per  cent,  into  a  spoon  that  has  paid  fifteen  per  cent,  flings 
himself  back  upon  his  chintz  bed  which  has  paid  twenty-two  per 
cent,  and  expires  in  the  arms  of  an  apothecary  who  has  paid  a 
license  of  a  hundred  pounds  for  the  privilege  of  putting  him  to 
death.  —  Sydney  Sinuth. 


THE  FORCIBLE  WORD  1 65 

2.  Now  I  write  you  from  my  mosquito  curtain,  to  the  song  of 
saws  and  planes  and  hammers,  and  wood  clumping  on  the  floor 
above ;  in  a  day  of  heavenly  brightness  ;  a  bird  twittering  near 
by  ;  my  eye,  through  the  open  door,  commanding  green  meads, 
two  or  three  forest  trees  casting  their  boughs  against  the  sky,  a 
forest-clad  mountain-side  beyond,  and  close  in  by  the  door-jamb 
a  nick  of  the  blue  Pacific.  It  is  March  in  England,  bleak  March, 
and  I  lie  here  with  the  great  sliding  doors  open  in  an  undershirt 
and  p'jama  trousers,  and  melt  in  the  closure  of  mosquito  bars, 
and  burn  to  be  out  in  the  breeze.  A  few  torn  clouds  —  not  white, 
the  sun  has  tinged  them  a  warm  pink  —  swim  in  heaven.  In 
which  blessed  and  fair  day,  I  have  to  make  faces  and  speak  bitter 
words  to  a  man  —  who  has  deceived  me,  it  is  true  —  but  who  is 
poor,  and  older  than  I,  and  a  kind  of  a  gentleman  too.  On  the 
whole,  I  prefer  the  massacre  of  weeds.  —  Stevenson,  "  Vailima 
Letters,"  Vol.  I. 

2.  Read  the  following  passage  carefully  and  make  a  list 
of  the  words  that  seem  particularly  well  chosen  : 

The  prospectus  of  the  Dictionary  he  [Samuel  Johnson]  ad- 
dressed to  the  Earl  of  Chesterfield.  Chesterfield  had  long  been 
celebrated  for  the  politeness  of  his  manners,  the  brilliancy  of  his 
wit,  and  the  delicacy  of  his  taste.  He  was  acknowledged  to  be 
the  finest  speaker  in  the  House  of  Lords.  He  had  recently  gov- 
erned Ireland,  at  a  momentous  conjuncture,  with  eminent  firm- 
ness, wisdom,  and  humanity ;  and  he  had  since  become  Secretary 
of  State.  He  received  Johnson's  homage  with  the  most  winning 
affability,  and  requited  it  with  a  few  guineas,  bestowed  doubtless 
in  a  very  graceful  manner,  but  was  by  no  means  desirous  to  see 
all  his  carpets  blackened  with  the  London  mud,  and  his  soups  and 
wines  thrown  to  right  and  left  over  the  gowns  of  fine  ladies  and 
the  waistcoats  of  fine  gentlemen,  by  an  absent,  awkward  scholar, 
who  gave  strange  starts  and  uttered  strange  growls,  who  dressed  like 
a  scarecrow  and  ate  like  a  cormorant.  During  some  time  Johnson 
continued  to  call  on  his  patron,  but,  after  being  repeatedly  told 


i66  'mi-:  FORdr.i.r:  word 

In-  the  ]K)vter  that  his  lordship  was  not  at  home,  took  the  hint, 
and  ceased  to  present  himself  at  the  inhosi)itable  door. — 
Macaulav,  "Life  of  Samuel  Johnson." 

3.  With  this  hst  before  you,   see  how  closely  you  can 
reproduce  the  paragraph  orally. 

4.  In  a  similar  way  reproduce  the  passage  from  Bunyan 
(PP-  153-155)- 


CHAPTER    XIV 
LONGER  COMPOSITIONS 

"  A  skeleton  is  not  a  thing  of  beauty  :  but  it  is  the  thing  which,  more  than 
any  other,  makes  the  body  erect  and  strong  and  swift."  —  Austin  Phelps. 

112.  Larger  Units.  In  our  short  compositions  we  have 
given  considerable  attention  to  unity  —  whether  in  a  sen- 
tence, a  paragraph,  or  a  group  of  paragraphs.  Hereafter 
many  of  our  papers  will  be  longer,  but  whether  paragraph, 
chapter,  or  book,  every  composition  should  be  a  unit. 

Individuals  constitute  the  family,  families  make  the  town, 
towns  the  state,  and  states  the  nation  ;  and  each  —  whether 
family,  town,  state,  or  nation  —  is  a  whole,  composed  of 
smaller  parts.  In  a  similar  way  sentences,  in  themselves 
units,  form  a  larger  unit,  the  paragraph  ;  paragraphs,  the 
chapter  ;  and  chapters,  the  book. 

113.  Means  of  securing  Unity.  As  you  know,  in  order 
to  secure  unity  you  should  choose  your  subject  carefully. 
You  must  decide  upon  your  point  of  view,  you  must  have 
in  mind  a  definite  goal,  and  you  must  advance  with  your 
eyes  on  that  goal.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  you  are  in- 
vited to  speak  ten  minutes  to  a  group  of  grammar-school 
pupils  on  the  merits  of  your  high  school.  Their  object  in 
giving  you  the  invitation  is  to  get  information  which  shall 
help  them  to  decide  whether  to  attend  the  high  school. 
That  object  gives  you  a  limited  subject.  You  will  try  to 
interest  them  so  much  in  the  doings  of  your  school  that 
they  will  be  eager  to  enter  it,  and  you  will  select  from  the 

167 


i68  lon(;er  compositions 

topics  which  occur  to  you  only  those  that  serve  your  pur- 
pose. In  brief,  to  secure  unity  you  must  (i)  keep  in  mind 
one  main  thought,  and  (2)  present  that  thought  from  a  care- 
fully fixed  point  of  vieiv. 

EXERCISES 

1.  State  in  a  single  sentence  the  main  thought  that  you 
would  naturally  bring  out  in  writing  on  one  of  the  subjects 
mentioned  in  Exercise  10,  page  173. 

2.  State  in  another  sentence  the  point  of  view  you  would 
take  in  presenting  that  thought. 

114.  Means  of  securing  Coherence.  Every  talk,  or  paper, 
should  be  coherent.  It  may  be  easy  to  frame  a  coherent 
sentence  or  a  coherent  paragraph,  but  to  hold  the  attention 
of  an  audience  for  ten  minutes,  or  for  three  minutes,  makes 
a  more  serious  demand  of  a  speaker.  He  must  arrange 
whole  groups  of  thoughts  so  that  the  transition  from  one 
group  to  another  shall  be  easy  and  natural. 

Let  us  suppose  that  in  your  ten  minutes'  talk  you  wish 
to  emphasize  four  matters  :  the  caliber  of  the  pupils  they 
will  find  in  the  school ;  the  good  condition  of  athletics;  the 
large  number  of  available  studies ;  and  the  unusually  strong 
body  of  teachers.  In  whatever  way  you  arrange  these 
divisions  of  your  subject,  you  must  make  it  plain  that  one 
leads  up  to  another,  and  that  each  contributes  its  part  to 
the  main  thought.  As  you  pass  from  topic  to  topic,  and 
from  paragraph  to  paragraph,  you  should  show  in  some  way 
that  you  are  moving  toward  your  destination. 

To  secure  coherence,  then,  yon  must  see  that  each  division 
of  the  subject  leads  up  to  the  next,  and  that  each  contributes 
its  part  to  the  jnain  thought. 


COHERENCE  169 

EXERCISES 

1.  Outline  the  life  of  an  author  whose  work  the  class  is 
now  reading.  Get  any  help  you  can  from  the  arrangement 
that  follows  : 

1.  Parents.  4.  College  life. 

a.  Father.  a.  Faithful  student. 

l>.  Mother.  (i)   Favorite  studies. 

2.  Childhood.  (2)  Dehating  club. 

a.  Nurse.  b.  Athlete. 

(1)  Stories.  (i)   Football. 

(2)  Affection.  (2)   Rowing. 

b.  Playmates.  c.  Ambitions. 

3.  Boyhood.  5.  Career  as  a  business  man. 

a.  School.  a-  Industry. 

b.  Recreations.  /'.  Promotion, 
(i)  Reading.  c.  Independence. 

(2)   Sailing.  6.  Position  in  the  community. 

2.  Make  a  detailed  outline  of  one  period  of  the  life  of 
the  author. 

3.  Make  a  detailed  outline  of  one  period  of  the  life  of  a 
favorite  character. 

4.  Give  the  class  a  talk  based  on  one  of  your  outlines. 
Use  no  notes  while  speaking. 

115.  Means  of  securing  Emphasis.  Everything  in  your 
paper  may  have  a  bearing  on  the  subject,  your  para- 
graphs may  all  fit  together,  but  there  is  still  an  im]5or- 
tant  question  to  answer:  Will  your  hearer  sift  from  all 
the  details  you  give  him  the  one  or  two  points  you  wish 
him  to  note  with  esj^ecial  care .?  In  other  words,  how 
can  you  secure  emphasis  .?  We  shall  proceed  to  examine 
two  ways. 


170  LONGER   COMPOSITIONS 

116.  Emphasis  through  Position.  \Vc  have  already  seen 
in  our  study  of  parai^raphs  that  what  we  i)ut  first  attracts 
attention,  and  that  we  may  expect  people  to  remember 
longest  what  comes  last.  In  other  words,  emphasis  may 
be  secured  by  position. 

Fixing  the  Order  of  the  Topics.  Let  us  return  to  the 
ten  minutes'  talk  you  began  to  prepare.  The  topics  may 
be  arranged  in  many  ways. 


I 

2 

3 

4 

Pupils. 

Teachers. 

Athletics. 

Pupils. 

Athletics. 

Pupils. 

Studies. 

Teachers. 

Studies. 

Athletics. 

Teachers. 

Studies. 

Teachers. 

Studies. 

Pupils. 

Athletics. 

If  you  wish  to  call  more  attention  to  teacJiers  than  to 
pupils,  athletics,  or  studies,  you  would  prefer  i  to  2,  3, 
or  4.  Having  decided  which  topic  shall  have  the  place  of 
honor,  the  end,  you  must  then  see  that  the  remaining  topics 
are  so  arranged  as  to  lead  up  naturally  to  that  topic. 

EXERCISES 

1.  If  you  were  to  use  the  following  topics  in  writing  an 
autobiography,  in  what  order  would  you  arrange  them, 
and  why  .? 

Birth.  Plans  for  the  future. 

Early  boyhood.  Tastes. 

2.  If  you  were  to  write  a  paper  on  your  interest  in  the 
following  games,  in  what  order  would  you  arrange  them, 
and  why  .-' 

Football.  Tennis. 

Baseball.  Golf. 


EMPHASES  1 7 1 

117.  Emphasis  through  Proportion.  If  in  the  talk  on 
your  school  you  give  half  of  your  space  to  athletics,  one 
naturally  infers  that  you  consider  athletics  of  most  impor- 
tance. If  you  dismiss  studies  with  two  or  three  sentences, 
it  is  an  equally  natural  inference  that  you  consider  that 
part  of  the  school  life  of  little  interest  —  at  least  to  your 
audience.  ///  the  long  composition,  then,  as  ivell  as  in  the 
paragraph,  epiphasis  is  a  matter  of  proportion. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Choose  a  limited  subject  with  which  you  are  familiar, 
and-  which  you  consider  suitable  for  a  three  minutes'  talk. 
By  way  of  preparing"  the  talk, 

1.  Fix  the  point  of  view. 

2.  Fix  the  order  of  the  topics. 

3.  Allot  to  each  topic  the  proportion  of  time  it  deserves. 

2.  After  all  tlie  help  you  can  get  at  home  or  from  your 
friends,  give  the  talk  to  the  class. 

3.  Bring  to  class  a  plan  and  use  it  in  writing  the  story 
of  some  novel  you  have  recently  read. 

4.  A  pupil  just  back  from  a  two  weeks'  vacation  in 
Marblehead  wrote  an  account  which  was  planned  as  follows  : 

1.  My  visit  to  Marblehead. 

2.  The  historic  Marblehead. 
a.  The  war  of  181  2. 

(i)  Marblehead's  defensive  work. 
(2)  Marblehead's  offensive  work. 

3.  The  present  Marblehead. 
a.  Population. 

(1)  Number,  compared  with  early  times. 

(2)  Kind. 


172  LONGER  COMPOSITIONS 

In  this  theme,  2  received  emphasis  by  proportioji  and  3 
emphasis  by  position.  If  the  pupil  were  asked  to  write  a 
letter  about  Marblehead  to  a  man  who  is  thinking  of  mak- 
ing his  home  there,  how  much  of  the  above  plan  would  he 
probably  use  ?  How  much  of  it  would  he  find  useful  in 
talking  to  an  historical  society  ? 

5.  Keeping  in  mind  the  suggestions  derived  from  this 
study  of  the  above  plan,  make  a  similar  plan,  for  a  theme 
addressed  to  your  mates. 

6.  Revise  your  plan  so  that  it  will  be  adapted  to  an 
entirely  different  audience. 

7.  The  following  outline  was  written  in  preparing  a  theme 
to  show  what  a  pupil  had  accomplished  during  his  first 
year  in  the  high  school.  You  may  be  able  to  suggest  im- 
provements in  it  —  perhaps  in  the  order  of  topics. 

The  First  Year  in  the  High  School 

1.  English.  4.  Drawing. 

a.  Reading.  a.  Free-hand. 

h.  Writing.  h.  Mechanical. 

2.  Shop  work.  5.  Algebra. 

a.  Carving.  a.  Factoring. 

b.  Carpentry.  h.  Equations. 

3.  History. 

a.  Roman. 
/'.  Greek. 

c.  English. 

8.  Make  an  outline  of  the  school  work  you  have  done 
this  year.  Tell  what  each  study  has  meant  to  you.  Arrange 
your  work  so  as  to  end  with  what  has  interested  you  most. 
Indicate  carefully  the  main  and  the  subordinate  divisions 
of  the  subject. 


THE- INTRODUCTION  1 73 

9.  (i)  Make  an  outline  of  an  account  of  your  own  life. 
(2)  Test  your  outline  thoroughly.     (3)  Write  the  account. 

10.  Prepare  an  outline  of  a  subject  on  which  you  would 
like  to  write,  and  for  which  you  need  several  paragraphs. 
These  subjects  may  be  suggestive  :  Lincoln's  Boyhood, 
Scott's  Boyhood,  The  Preservation  of  the  Forests,  The 
Italians  of  To-day,  Ought  Football  to  be  played  in  Schools 
and  Colleges  ?  The  Autobiography  of  a  Public  Carriage, 
Rome  at  Her  Greatest,  The  Persecution  of  the  Jews, 
A  Letter  to  an  Editor  on  a  Matter  of  General  Interest. 

11.  After  testing  the  outline  as  thoroughly  as  you  know 
how,  write  the  composition.  Then  apply  the  same  tests  to 
the  composition. 

118.  The  Introduction.  Just  because  a  boy  wishes  to 
tell  us  about  a  day's  tramping,  it  does  not  follow  that 
he  is  compelled  to  mention  the  precise  moment  of  his 
waking  or  the  difficulties  and  the  rapidity  of  his  dressing. 
If  he  is  to  interest  us  in  his  trip,  the  sooner  he  gets  under 
way  the  better.  It  is  safe  to  make  introductions  brief 
and  informal. 

Irving  begins  his  "  Oliver  Goldsmith  "  in  this  way  : 

There  are  few  writers  for  whom  the  reader  feels  such  personal 
kindness  as  for  Oliver  Goldsmith,  for  few  have  so  eminently 
possessed  the  magic  gift  of  identifying  themselves  with  their 
writings. 

Hawthorne  opens  ''The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables" 
with  these  words  : 

Half-way  down  a  by-street  of  one  of  our  New  England  towns 
stands  a  rusty  wooden  house,  with  seven  acutely  peaked  gables, 
facing  towards  various  points  of  the  compass,  and  a  huge,  clustered 
chimney  in  the  midst. 


174  LONGER  COMPOSRIONS 

EXERCISES 

1.  Examine  the  introtluctions  of  five  chapters  and  five 
books  and  stories.  You  may  include  "  Ivanhoe,"  "  The  Last 
of  the  Mohicans," "The  Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  " Silas Marner," 
and  "The  Alhambra."  Take  notes  and  give  an  oral  report 
based  on  them. 

2.  Write  an  introductory  paragra])h  of  an  account  of  a 
visit  you  once  made. 

3.  Write  introductory  paragraphs  of  papers  on  two  of 
the  following  subjects  : 

1.  A  Long  Day. 

2.  A  Delightful  Ride. 

3.  A  Morning's  Drive. 

4.  An  Old  Friend  (a  person). 

'       5.  An  Old  Friend  (an  animal). 

6.  In  the  Train. 

7.  An  Excursion. 

4.  Exchange  papers.  Condense  and  simplify  the  intro- 
ductions as  much  as  possible. 

119.  The  Conclusion.  You  should  think  twice  about  your 
concluding  paragraph.  At  times  it  should  include  a  careful 
summary  of  your  whole  composition.  Now  and  then  you 
may  think  of  an  anecdote  that  will  give  point  to  all  you 
have  said.  If  one  topic  has  led  up  to  another  naturally, 
you  may  need  no  other  conclusion  than  a  forcible  ending  of 
your  last  topic.  A  good  story-teller,  with  his  fondness  for 
dwelling  on  the  parts  that  please  him  most,  is  apt  to  be  a 
long  time  reaching  the  end  of  his  journey,  but  once  there 
he  knows  enough  to  stop.  As  you  hear  lectures  and  ser- 
mons, you  will  probably  make  up  your  mind  that  both 
introductions  and  conclusions  are  better  for  beinc:  brief. 


THE   CONCLUSION  1 75 

EXERCISES 

1.  Examine  ten  endings  of  chapters,  magazine  articles, 
books,  and  stories.  Take  notes,  and  give  an  oral  report 
based  on  them. 

2.  Write  the  concluding  paragraph  of  each  of  the  papers 
for  which  you  wrote  introductory  paragraphs. 

3.  Exchange  the  conclusions  and  do  all  you  can  to 
make  those  you  examine  as  brief  and  as  comprehensive 
as  possible. 

120.  The  Value  of  a  Plan.  In  short,  then,  the  composi- 
tion —  whatever  its  length  —  should  have  unity,  coherence, 
and  emphasis.  If  you  would  secure  these  characteristics, 
do  all  you  can  to  form  the  ha,bit  of  simple,  straightforward, 
vigorous  thinking.  You  will  find  a  plan  helpful  in  deter- 
mining the  goal  you  are  to  reach,  in  keeping  your  path, 
and  in  spending  your  time  along  the  way  to  best  advan- 
tage. In  making  your  plan,  consider  carefully  (i)  your 
point  of  view,  and  (2)  the  choice  and  order  of  the  topics. 
Finally,  rememl)er  that  a  careful  revision  of  the  plan  may 
save  hours  of  rewriting. 

EXERCISE 

Give  the  class  a  three  minutes'  talk.  Whatever  your 
subject,  show  the  audience  that  you  are  prepared  to  speak 
on  it.  If  you  wish,  you  may  choose  some  subject  on  which 
you  have  already  written  with  great  care.  At  any  rate  know 
just  what  you  wish  to  say,  so  that  you  can  speak  fluently. 
Give  your  best  attention  to  the  preparation  of  your  plan. 
Consider  carefully  the  introduction  and  the  conclusion  ; 
and  if  you  wish,  write  them.    Choose  an  appropriate  title. 


PART    TWO 

CHAPTER   XV 
NARRATION 

Hear  as  many  good  stories  as  you  can,  and  tell  one  whenever  you  find 
a  listener. 

121.  The  Study  of  Common  Forms  of  Prose.  In  study- 
ing literature  with  a  view  to  learning  how  to  write,  it  has 
proved  convenient  to  examine  each  of  the  four  common 
forms  of  prose  by  itself.  Now  as  a  matter  of  fact  we  do 
not  find  a  great  many  pure  narratives,  or  pure  descriptions, 
or  pure  expositions,  or  pure  arguments  ;  almost  every  com- 
position is  a  combination  of  two  or  more  of  these  forms. 
It  is  important,  however,  to  acquire  some  skill  in  the  use  of 
each  kind,  for  all  are  practical  ways  of  using  our  mother 
tongue.  If  we  tell  a  story,  we  wish  to  tell  it  so  that  it  will 
make  a  definite  impression  ;  if  \we  paint  a  word  picture,  we 
wish  the  picture  to  affect  the  reader  as  it  affects  us  ;  if  we 
give  an  explanation,  we  wish  it  to  be  so  clear  and  orderly 
that  every  listener  will  follow  step  by  step  ;  if  we  cham- 
pion one  side  of  a  question,  we  wish  to  present  that  side 
in  such  a  straightforward,  logical  way  that  we  shall  be 
convincing. 

122.  The  Incident.  First  wc  shall  study  nnry-ation. 
Whether  wc  are  trying  to  tell  something  that  has  hap- 
pened to  us,  something  wc  have  heard,  or  something  we 


l-jt^  NARRATION 

have  read,  we  are  conlinually  thinking,  "  I  wish  I  knew 
how  to  tell  a  story."  Probably  the  easiest  way  to  become 
a  good  story-teller  is  to  begin  with  incidents.  We  all  note 
many  occurrences  which  are  worth  recording,  and  in  order 
to  write  them  in  good  form  we  should  study  the  way  in 
which  others  have  done  the  same  kind  of  writing.  We 
should  remember,  too,  that  practice  in  telling  incidents 
from  the  lives  of  others  will  help  us  in  telling  those  that 
come  within  our  own  experience. 


EXERCISES 

1.  In  criticising  the  following  incidents,  ansv/er  these 
questions  : 

1.  Is  the  introduction  sufficiently  brief? 

2.  Are  the  events  told  in  a  natural  order? 

3.  Does  the  narrative  end  in  a  way  that  brings  out  clearly  the 
main  point? 

Franklin's  Famous  Toast 

Franklin  was  dining  with  a  small  party  of  distinguished  gentle- 
men, when  one  of  them  said  :  "  Here  are  three  nationalities 
represented.  I  am  French,  and  my  friend  here  is  English,  and 
Mr.  Franklin  is  an  American.    Let  each  one  propose  a  toast." 

It  was  agreed  to,  and  the  Englishman's  turn  came  first.  He 
arose,  and,  in  the  tone  of  a  Briton  bold,  said,  "  Here's  to  Great 
Britain,  the  sun  that  gives  light  to  all  nations  of  the  earth." 

The  Frenchman  was  rather  taken  aback  at  this ;  but  he  pro- 
posed, "  Here's  to  France,  the  moon  whose  magic  rays  move  the 
tides  of  the  world." 

Franklin  then  arose,  with  an  air  of  quaint  modesty,  and  said, 
"  Here's  to  our  beloved  George  Washington,  the  Joshua  of  Amer- 
ica, who  commanded  the  sun  and  moon  to  stand  still — and  they 
obeyed." 


THE   INCIDENT  179 

Lamb's  Salt  Dips 

Lamb  had  been  medically  advised  to  take  a  course  of  sea-- 
bathing ;  and  accordingly,  at  the  door  of  his  bathing  machine, 
whilst  he  stood  shivering  with  the  cold,  two  stout  fellows  laid 
hold  of  him,  one  at  each  shoulder,  like  heraldic  supporters  ;  they 
waited  for  the  word  of  command  from  their  principal,  who  began 
the  following  oration  to  them  : 

"Hear  me,  men  !  Take  notice  of  this  —  I  am  to  be  dipped." 
What  more  he  would  have  said  is  unknown,  for  having  reached 
the  word  "dipped,"  he  commenced  such  a  rolling  fire  of  di-di- 
di-di,  that  when  at  length  he  descended  a  plomb  upon  the  full 
word  dipped,  the  two  men,  rather  tired  of  the  long  suspense,  be- 
came satisfied  that  they  had  reached  what  lawyers  call  the  "oper- 
ative clause  "  of  the  sentence,  and  both  exclaiming,  "Oh  yes,  sir, 
we  are  quite  aware  of  that,"  down  they  plunged  him  into  the  sea. 

On  emerging.  Lamb  sobbed  so  much  from  the  cold  that  he 
found  no  voice  suitable  to  his  indignation ;  from  necessity  he 
seemed  tranquil;  and  again  addressing  the  men,  who  stood  re- 
spectfully listening,  he  began  thus  : 

"  Men  !  is  it  possible  to  obtain  your  attention?  " 

"Oh,  surely,  sir,  by  all  means." 

"  Then  listen  ;  once  more  I  tell  you  I  am  to  be  di-di-di-di-," 
and  then,  with  a  burst  of  indignation,  "dipped,  I  tell  you." 

"  Oh,  decidedly,  sir,"  rejoined  the  men,  "decidedly,"  and  down 
the  stammerer  went  for  a  second  time. 

Petrified  with  cold  and  wrath,  once  more  Lamb  made  a  feeble 
attempt  at  explanation  : 

"  Grant  me  pa-pa-patience  !  Is  it  mum-um-murder  you  me- 
me-ean?  Again,  and  again  I  tell  you  I'm  to  be  di-di-di-dipped," 
now  speaking  furiously,  with  the  tone  of  an  injured  man. 

"Oh  yes,  sir,"  the  men  replied,  "we  know  that ;  we  fully  under- 
stood it"  ;  and,  for  the  third  time,  down  went  Lamb  into  the  sea. 

"  O  limbs  of  Satan  !  "  he  said,  on  coming  up  for  the  third  time, 
"  it's  now  too  late  ;  I  tell  you  that  I  am  —  no,  that  I  was  —  by 
medical  direction  to  be  di-di-di-dipped  only  once.'' 


l8o  NARRATION 

Thackeray  and  'ihk  Oyster^ 

.  Thackeray  announced  to  me  by  letter  .  .  .  that  he  .  .  .  would 
sail  for  Boston  by  the  Canada  on  the  30th  of  October.  All  the 
necessary  arrangements  for  his  lecturing  tour  had  been  made 
without  troubling  him  with  any  of  the  details.  He  arrived  on 
a  frosty  November  evening,  and  went  directly  to  the  Tremont 
House,  where  rooms  had  been  engaged  for  him.  I  remember 
his  delight  in  getting  off  the  sea,  and  the  enthusiasm  with  which 
he  hailed  the  announcement  that  dinner  would  be  ready  shortly. 
A  few  friends  were  ready  to  sit  down  with  him,  and  he  seemed 
greatly  to  enjoy  the  novelty  of  an  American  repast.  In  London 
he  had  been  very  curious  in  his  inquiries  about  American  oysters, 
as  marvellous  stories,  which  he  did  not  believe,  had  been  told 
him  of  their  great  size.  We  apologized  —  although  we  had  taken 
care  that  the  largest  specimens  to  be  procured  should  startle  his 
unwonted  vision  when  he  came  to  the  table  — for  what  we  called 
the  extreme  stnallness  of  the  oysters,  promising  that  we  would  do 
better  next  time.  Six  bloated  Falstaffian  bivalves  lay  before  him 
in  their  shells.  I  noticed  that  he  gazed  at  them  anxiously  with 
fork  upraised  ;  then  he  whispered  to  me,  with  a  look  of  anguish, 
"How  shall  I  do  it?"  I  described  to  him  the  simple  process 
by  which  the  free-born  citizens  of  America  were  accustomed  to 
accomplish  such  a  task.  He  seemed  satisfied  that  the  thing  was 
feasible,  selected  the  smallest  one  in  the  half-dozen  (rejecting  a 
large  one,  "because,"  he  said,  "it  resembled  the  High  Priest's 
servant's  ear  that  Peter  cut  off  "),  and  then  bowed  his  head  as  if 
he  were  saying  grace.  All  eyes  were  upon  him  to  watch  the  effect 
of  a  new  sensation  in  the  person  of  a  great  British  author.  Open- 
ing his  mouth  very  wide,  he  struggled  for  a  moment,  and  then  all 
was  over.  I  shall  never  forget  the  comic  look  of  despair  he  cast 
upon  the  other  five  over-occupied  shells.  I  broke  the  perfect 
stillness  by  asking  him  how  he  felt.  "  Profoundly  grateful,"  he 
gasped,  "and  as  if  I  had  swallowed  a  little  baby." 

J.  T.  Fields,  "  Yesterdays  with  Authors." 

1  Reprinted  by  permission  of  Messrs.  Houghton,  Mifflin  and  Company, 


THE   INCIDENT  l8l 


Mv  Father's  Friend 


While  my  father  was  an  officer  of  the  English  army  in  South 
Africa,  we  occupied  a  large  cabin,  which,  unlike  the  other  bun- 
galows, had  two  stories.  One  evening  when  my  father  and  sister 
and  I  were  sitting  together,  I  noticed  that  father,  who  was  sitting 
facing  the  window,  turned  very  pale.  Being  a  soldier's  daughter 
and  fearing  to  alarm  my  invalid  sister,  I  sat  quiet  waiting  for  my 
father's  orders.  Soon  he  said  in  a  steady  voice  :  "  Edith  and 
Florence,  a  friend  of  mine  is  coming  here  to  see  me  this  evening, 
and  I  wish  to  be  alone  with  him.  Therefore  I  wish  you  to  go  up 
to  your  own  room."  ^^'e  obeyed  immediately;  and  going  to  our 
room,  closed  the  door. 

Soon  I  heard  a  sound  like  that  of  a  door  bursting  in,  and  then 
a  scramble  of  feet.  They  were  hurrying  up  the  narrow  stairs. 
Fearing  that  there  was  some  danger  near,  I  seized  the  pistol  which 
my  father  always  obliged  me  to  keep  loaded  in  my  room.  Ihen  I 
heard  my  father  cry  out,  "  For  mercy's  sake,  child,  open  the  door." 
I  did  so  ;  and  to  my  horror  I  saw,  not  a  friend  of  his,  but  the 
worst  enemy  of  the  soldier  in  Africa,  the  gorilla.  He  was  over- 
taking my  father  ;  and  recovering  my  sense  just  in  time,  I  raised 
the  pistol  and  fired.  For  once  I  had  aimed  well,  and  the  animal 
fell  backward  with  an  angry  scream.  Father  quickly  took  the  still 
smoking  pistol  from  my  hand,  and  fired  another  shot,  which  dis- 
patched the  brute. 

Father  then  told  us  that  when  he  saw  the  dreaded  animal 
at  the  window,  he  had  sent  us  upstairs  ;  and  he  hoped  to  be 
able  to  shut  and  bar  the  door  —  which  always  stood  open  — 
before  the  creature  noticed  it.  The  gorilla  had,  however,  been 
too  quick  for  him  ;  and  this  was  the  cause  of  the  hurried  flight 
up  the  stairs. 

2.  Tell  the  foregoing  incident.  Be  sure  to  keep  your 
audience  in  sus[)ense  as  well  as  the  writer  docs. 

3.  Tell  the  first  anecdote  without  allowing  any  of  the 
gentlemen  to  speak  for  themselves    and  state  whether  it 


l82  NARRATION 

seems  wise  to  allow  the  persons,  or  characters,  to  speak 
for  themselves  as  much  as  possible. 

4.  Tell  an  incident  from  "Ivanhoe  "  that  is  suggested 
by  one  of  the  following  topics.  See  that  you  have  a  good 
beginning,  an  orderly  sequence  of  events,  and  a  dignified 
conclusion. 

1.  An  Evening  at  Cedric's  Home. 

2.  The  Persecution  of  Isaac. 

3.  A  Test  of  Skill  in  Archery. 

5.  Tell  an  incident  based  on  your  own  experience. 

6.  Write  one  incident  a  week  during  the  coming  month. 

7.  Does  the  following  narrative  begin  promptly  .''  Is  the 
order  of  events  a  natural  one  ?    Does  the  story  end  well  .'* 

A  Sad  Story 

My  next-door  neighbor  has  a  rooster  which  set  up  to  be  the 
rival  of  mine.  It  is  a  strange  thing  that  creatures  living  side  by 
side,  instead  of  cultivating  friendship  and  good  feelings,  should 
become  envious,  jealous,  and  quarrelsome. 

Well,  at  first  the  rival  roosters  were  satisfied  with  trying  to  see 
which  could  crow  the  louder,  and  it  really  seemed  as  if  they  would 
split  their  throats  in  the  contest.  Then  they  began  to  try  which 
should  wake  up  and  crow  first  in  the  morning,  and  in  this  strife  they 
would  often  begin  at  two  o'clock  at  night ;  and  lest  one  should 
get  advantage  over  the  other,  they  kept  crowing  away  till  sunrise. 

So  long  as  things  were  confined  to  crowing,  no  serious  evil  fol- 
lowed, but  from  crows  the  rivals  at  last  came  to  blows.  One  day, 
as  they  chanced  to  be  pretty  near  together,  they  began  crowing  at 
each  other.  By  and  by  my  rooster  got  angry  ;  so  he  mounted  the 
fence  which  divides  my  yard  from  my  neighbor's,  flapped  his 
wings,  and  crowed  a  most  tremendous  crow.  Upon  this  the  other 
gave  him  a  regular  challenge  to  fight.  There  was  no  police  to 
stop  them,  and  they  went  at  it.    It  was  no  boy's  play  ;   wings. 


THE   INCIDENT  1 83 

spurs,  and  beaks,  all  were  put  in  action.  They  fought  like  tigers, 
and  when  neither  could  stand,  they  held  on  to  each  other's  combs 
and  lay  panting  on  the  ground.  At  last  they  got  up.  One  marched 
one  way  and  the  other  another. 

My  rooster  was  so  nearly  blind  that  he  could  not  find  the  way 
to  the  henhouse.  The  best  he  could  do  was  to  get  under  a  small 
cedar  tree,  and  there  he  took  lodgings  for  the  night.  But,  alas  ! 
the  weather  was  bitter  cold,  and  the  poor  thing  was  found  stiff 
as  an  icicle,  his  feathers  torn,  his  comb  destroyed,  and  the  air 
of  pride  and  triumph  which  once  distinguished  him,  departed 
forever.  My  neighbor's  rooster  saw  the  poor  fellow  lying  in  the 
snow,  so  over  the  fence  he  flew  and  began  a  most  furious  assault 
ujion  the  lifeless  body.  After  beating  it  soundly  for  about  five 
minutes  the  creature  paused,  looked  contemptuously  at  the  object 
of  his  wrath,  drew  himself  up  to  his  full  height,  and  crowed.  Then, 
with  ])roud  strides,  he  marched  off  to  his  flock  of  hens,  who  received 
him  with  three  cheers,  as  the  hero  of  all  outdoors. 

8.  Read  aloud  the  following  bit  of  narrative  until  you 
can  read  it  well.    Then  tell  just  why  you  like  or  dislike  it. 

The  bear  was  coming  on  ;  he  had,  in  fact,  come  on.  I  judged 
that  he  could  see  the  whites  of  my  eyes.  All  my  subsequent 
reflections  were  confused.  I  raised  the  gun,  covered  the  bear's 
breast  with  the  sight,  and  let  drive.  Then  I  turned,  and  ran  like 
a  deer.  I  did  not  hear  the  bear  pursuing.  I  looked  back.  The 
bear  had  stopped.  He  was  lying  down.  I  then  remembered  that 
the  best  thing  to  do  after  having  fired  your  gun  is  to  reload  it. 
I  slipped  in  a  charge,  keeping  my  eyes  on  the  bear.  He  never 
stirred.  I  walked  back  suspiciously.  There  was  a  quiver  in  the 
hind-legs,  but  no  other  motion.  Still  he  might  be  shamming : 
bears  often  sham.  To  make  sure,  I  approached,  and  put  a  ball 
into  his  head.  He  didn't  mind  it  now  :  he  minded  nothing.  Death 
had  come  to  him  with  a  merciful  suddenness.  He  was  calm  in 
death.  In  order  that  he  might  remain  so,  I  blew  his  brains  out, 
and  then  started  for  home.    1  had  killed  a  bear  !  —  CD.  Warner. 


184  NARRATION 

9.   Read    the    following    narratives    aloud    and    criticise 
(i)  the  introduction,  (2)  the  order  of  events,  (3)  the  ending. 

Incident  of  the  French  Camp 

You  know,  we  French  stormed  Ratisbon  : 

A  mile  or  so  away, 
On  a  little  mound.  Napoleon 

Stood  on  our  storm  ing-day  ; 
With  neck  out-thrust,  you  fancy  how, 

Legs  wide,  arms  locked  behind, 
As  if  to  balance  the  prone  brow 

Oppressive  with  its  mind. 

Just  as  perhaps  he  mused,  "  My  plans 

That  soar,  to  earth  may  fall, 
Let  once  my  army-leader  Lannes 

Waver  at  yonder  wall,"  — 
Out  'twixt  the  battery-smokes  there  flew 

A  rider,  bound  on  bound 
Full-galloping  ;  nor  bridle  drew 

Until  he  reached  the  mound. 

Then  off  there  flung  in  smiling  joy, 

And  held  himself  erect 
By  just  his  horse's  mane,  a  boy  : 

You  hardly  could  suspect  — 
(So  tight  he  kept  his  lips  compressed. 

Scarce  any  blood  came  through) 
You  looked  twice  ere  you  saw  his  breast 

Was  all  but  shot  in  two. 

"  Well,"  cried  he,  "  Emperor,  by  God's  grace 

We've  got  you  Ratisbon  ! 
The  Marshal's  in  the  market-place. 

And  you'll  be  there  anon 


THE   INCIDENT    -  185 

To  see  your  flag-bird  flaj)  his  vans 

Where  I,  to  heart's  desire, 
Perched  him  !  "    The  chief's  eye  flashed  ;  his  plans 

Soared  up  again  lilce  fire. 

The  chief's  eye  flashed  ;  but  presently 

Softened  itself,  as  sheathes 
A  film  the  mother-eagle's  eye 

When  her  bruised  eaglet  breathes  ; 
"You're  wounded  !  "    "  Nay,"  the  soldier's  pride 

Touched  to  the  quick,  he  said  : 
"  I'm  killed,  Sire  !  "  And  his  chief  beside, 

Smiling  the  boy  fell  dead. 

Browning. 


Ql'ite  So 

"  I  say  there,  drop  that !  "'  cried  Strong.  "All  right,  sir,  didn't 
know  it  was  you,"  he  added  hastily,  seeing  it  was  Lieutenant 
Haines  who  had  thrown  back  the  flap  of  the  tent,  and  let  in  a 
gust  of  wind  and  rain  that  threatened  the  most  serious  bronchial 
consequences  to  our  discontented  tallow  dip. 

"You're  to  bunk  in  here,"  said  the  lieutenant,  speaking  to 
some  one  outside.  The  some  one  stepped  in,  and  Haines  van- 
ished in  the  darkness. 

When  Strong  had  succeeded  in  restoring  the  candle  to  con- 
sciousness, the  light  fell  upon  a  tall,  shy-looking  man  of  about 
thirty-five,  with  long,  hay-colored  beard  and  mustache,  upon 
which  the  rain-drops  stood  in  clusters,  like  the  night-dew  on 
patches  of  cobweb  in  a  meadow.  It  was  an  honest  face,  with 
unworldly  blue  eyes,  that  looked  out  from  under  the  broad  visor 
of  the  infantry  cap.  With  a  deferential  glance  towards  us,  the 
new-comer  unstrapped  his  knapsack,  spread  his  blanket  over  it, 
and  sat  down  unobtrusively. 

"  Rather  damp  night  out,"  remarked  Blakely,  whose  strong 
hand  was  supposed  to  be  conversation. 


1 86  NARRATION 

"Quite  so,"  replied  llie  sUanger,  not  curtly,  but  pleasantly,  and 
with  an  air  as  if  he  had  said  all  there  was  to  be  said  about  it. 

"Come  from  the  North  recently?"  inquired  Blakely,  after  a 
pause. 

"Yes." 

"  From  any  place  in  particular?  " 

"  Maine." 

"People  considerably  stirred  up  down  there?"  continued 
Blakely,  determined  not  to  give  up. 

"  Quite  so." 

Blakely  threw  a  puzzled  look  over  the  tent,  and  seeing  Ned 
Strong  on  the  broad  grin,  frowned  severely.  Strong  instantly 
assumed  an  abstracted  air,  and  began  humming  softly, 

"  T  wish  I  was  in  Dixie." 

"The  State  of  Maine,"  observed  Blakely,  with  a  certain  defi- 
ance of  manner  not  at  all  necessary  in  discussing  a  geographical 
question,  "  is  a  pleasant  State." 

"  In  summer,"  suggested  the  stranger. 

"In  summer,  I  mean,"  returned  Blakely  with  animation, 
thinking  he  had  broken  the  ice.  "  Cold  as  blazes  in  winter, 
though  —  isn't  it?  " 

The  new  recruit  merely  nodded. 

Blakely  eyed  the  man  homicidally  for  a  moment,  and  then, 
smiling  one  of  those  smiles  of  simulated  gayety  which  the  novel- 
ists inform  us  are  more  tragic  than  tears,  turned  upon  him  with 
withering  irony. 

"Trust  you  left  the  old  folks  pretty  comfortable?  " 

"  Dead." 

"The  old  folks  dead!" 

"  Quite  so." 

T.  B.  Aldrich,  "Quite  So  "  in  "  Marjorie  Daw." 

Note.  In  this  combination  of  narrative  and  description  notice 
what  an  important  part  the  conversation  plays.  Does  the  natvu'al  way 
in  which  the  writer  approaches  the  climax  remind  you  of  the  telling 
of  one  of  the  anecdotes  in  this  chapter.? 


LONGER   NARRATIVES  187 

123.  Longer  Narratives.  Whatever  skill  we  acquire  in  the 
telling  of  incidents  we  can  turn  to  good  account  when  we 
tell  stories  which  include  several  events.  Of  these  longer 
narratives  there  are  two  common  forms,  the  short  story 
and  the  novel. 

The  short  story,  like  the  incident,  is  constructed  to  bring 
out  clearly  a  single  point,  or  to  produce  a  single  effect. 
The/AV  —  or  action  of  the  story  —  should  be  original  and 
striking.  Whereas  in  the  incident  the  characters  may  be 
mere  names,  in  the  good  short  story  they  not  only  talk  but 
they  live. 

Compared  with  the  short  story,  — which  generally  deals 
with  one  chief  character,  or  one  situation, —  the  novel  is 
intricate.  It  gives  a  picture  of  the  real  life  of  the  char- 
acters it  presents.  Sometimes  interest  centers  in  the  in- 
cidents, sometimes  in  the  characters.  Among  novels  of 
incident  are  "Treasure  Island,"  "The  Last  of  the  Mo- 
hicans," and  "Ivanhoe";  among  novels  of  character  are 
"Vanity  Fair"  and  "  Silas  Marner."  Pupils  who  wish  to  ex- 
amine a  novel  as  a  work  of  art  will  find  in  the  introduc- 
tions and  notes  of  editions  prepared  for  schools  such  aids 
as  an  analysis  of  the  author's  plot  and  a  study  of  his 
method  and  of  his  characters. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  your  favorite  novels  under  two  heads  : 
first,  those  that  were  evidently  written  for  the  sake  of  tell- 
ing the  story  ;  second,  those  that  tell  a  story  for  the  sake 
of  developing  characters. 

2.  Write  a  theme  telling  which  of  these  two  kinds  you 
prefer,  and  why.    Give  illustrations. 


1 88  NARRATION 

Although  the  study  of  both  forms  of  fiction  is  vakiable, 
in  learning  how  to  write  such  stories  as  most  of  us  are 
likely  to  produce,  we  naturally  turn  to  the  short  story.  The 
following  volumes  contain  many  interesting  short  stories  : 

"  Gallegher  and  Other  Stories  "  Richard  Harding  Davis. 

"  Old  Chester  Tales  "  Margaret  Deland. 

"Tales  of  a  Traveller  "  Washington  Irving. 

"The  Other  Fellow"  F.  Hopkinson  Smith. 

"The  Jungle  Books"  ]  t^   j      j  i--  r 

•'     °  ,      ^^ -  Rudyard  Kipling. 

"  Plain  Tales  from  the  Hills  "  i         ^  ^      ^ 

"A  Humble  Romance"  Mary  Wilkins  Freeman. 

"  In  the  ^^'ilderness  "  Charles  Dudley  Warner. 

"In  Ole  Virginia"  Thomas  Nelson  Page. 

"  Marjorie  Daw  "  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich. 

"Wanted  :  A  Match-Maker"  Paul  Leicester  Ford. 

Other  good  stories  are  mentioned  in  Exercise  i,  below, 
and  others  in  the  book  review  under  Exercise  9,  page  215. 

124.  Directions  for  telling  a  Story.  As  we  read,  as  well 
as  when  we  write,  we  may  profitably  keep  in  mind  the  fol- 
lowing directions  for  telling  a  story  : 

1.  Secure  -loiity  of  ejfect.  Choose  material  that  will  bring 
out  the  point  you  wish  to  emphasize.  Reject  whatever  does 
not  make  some  contribution  to  the  end  in  view. 

2.  Secure  coherence.  Be  sure  that  one  part  leads  up  to 
another  ;  that  the  various  parts  are  as  closely  connected  as 
so  many  links  in  a  chain. 

3.  Secure  emphasis  and  force,  a.  The  beginnijtg  ^ov\^ 
arouse  an  intelligent  interest  in  what  is  to  come.  Such 
interest  may  be  gained  in  two  ways  :  (i)  by  giving  an  ex- 
planation that  will  prepare  the  reader  for  subsequent  narra- 
tion ;  or  (2)  by  fixing  his  attention  on  something  decidedly 
suggestive  of  what  is  in  store. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  TELLING  A  STORY  189 

b.  See  that  your  narrative  has  proportion.  Condense  the 
unimportant  in  order  that  you  may  have  sufficient  space  for 
whatever  you  wish  to  emphasize. 

c.  The  good  story-teller  knows  how  to  keep  his  listeners  in 
suspense.  A  study  of  "Ivanhoe"  and  other  novels  of  Scott's, 
and  careful  listening  to  men  whose  audiences  seldom  weary, 
will  help  us  to  a  wuse  use  of  this  means  of  emphasis. 

d.  The  skillful  introduction  of  conversation  often  in- 
creases the  interest. 

e.  The  ending  must  count.  A  story  should  not  only 
make  continual  progress  ;  it  should  grow  in  interest  up  to 
the  very  end.  We  should  tell  it  so  that  when  we  have 
reached  the  ''climax" — when  the  interest  is  at  its  height 
—  there  will  be  little  or  nothing  more  to  say.  Sometimes 
the  climax  comes  after  a  gradual  preparation ;  sometimes 
it  is  all  the  more  effective  because  it  comes  unexpectedly. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Tell  the  story  of .  one  of  the  following  narratives: 
"The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,"  a  canto  of  "The  Lady  of  the 
Lake,"  "  The  Man  Without  a  Country,"  "  Rip  Van  Winkle," 
"The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher,"  "The  King  of  the 
Golden  River,"  or  one  of  these  stories  in  "The  Sketch- 
Book":  (i)  the  Captain's  story  in  "The  Voyage  ";  (2)  "Rip 
Van  Winkle";  (3)  the  adventures  of  Ichabod  Crane  in  "The 
Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow."    First  write  a  brief  plan. 

2.  Write  (i)  the  opening  paragraph  of  the  story  you 
have  just  told  ;  (2)  the  closing  paragraph. 

3.  Write  the  story.  Consider  the  value  of  conversation, 
and  if  you  use  any,  see  that  it  is  to  the  point  and  neatly 
introduced. 


I90  NARRATION 

4.  Make  a  plan  of  one  of  the  four  stories  suggested  by 
these  words  : 

1.  "One  or  two  strokes  of  a  spade  upturned  the  blade  of  a 
large  Spanish  knife,  and,  as  we  dug  farther,  three  or  four  loose 
pieces  of  gold  and  silver  coin  came  to  light.  .  .  . 

"  We  now  worked  in  earnest,  and  never  did  I  pass  ten  minutes 
of  more  intense  excitement." 

2.  "It  was  done.    Whether  right  or  wrong,  it  was  done." 

3.  "  I  want  my  happiness  !  "  at  last  he  murmured,  hoarsely  and- 
indistinctly,  hardly  shaping  out  the  words.  "  Many,  many  years 
have  I  waited  for  it !  It  is  late  !  It  is  late  !  I  want  my  happiness  !  " 

4.  "  What  was  I  to  do  to  pass  away  the  long-lived  day?  " 

5.  Write  the  story  in  full. 

6.  Write  whatever  any  one  of  the  following  extracts 
suggests : 

.1 .  " Do  you,"  she  said,  "  believe  in  dreams?  "  "  That  is  a  ques- 
tion I  can't  answer  truthfully,"  I  replied,  laughing.  "  I  don't  really 
know  whether  I  believe  in  dreams  or  not." 

2.  The  voice  of  Mrs.  Peters,  her  next-door  neighbor,  came  back 
in  response  :   "It's  me.    What's  the  matter,  Marthy?  " 

"  I'm  kinder  used  up ;  don't  know  how  you'll  git  in  ;  I  can't 
git  to  the  door  to  unlock  it  to  save  my  life." 

3.  On  drawing  it  to  the  surface,  we  were  much  surprised  to  find 
it  a  long  pistol  of  very  curious  and  outlandish  fashion,  which,  from 
its  rusted  condition,  and  its  stock  being  worm-eaten  and  covered 
with  barnacles,  appeared  to  have  lain  a  long  time  under  water. 

4.  "  Nephew,"  said  he,  after  several  efforts,  and  in  a  low,  gasp- 
ing voice,  "  I  am  glad  you  are  come.  I  shall  now  die  with  satis- 
faction. Look,"  said  he,  raising  his  withered  hand,  and  pointing 
—  "  look  in  that  box  on  the  table  :  you  will  find  that  I  have  not 
forgotten  you." 

5.  To  make  assurance  surer,  I  got  upon  my  hands  and  knees, 
and  crawled,  without  a  sound,  towards  the  corner  of  the  house. 
As  I  drew  nearer,  my  heart  was  suddenly  and  greatly  lightened. 


EXERCISES  191 

6.  He  had  plenty  to  do  the  next  hour.   [Rapid  movement.] 

7.  "I  love  anything  that's  old:  old  friends,  old  times,  old 
manners,  old  books,  old  wine  ;  and,  I  believe,  Dorothy  (taking 
her  hand),  you'll  own  I  have  been  pretty  fond  of  an  old  wife." 
[Slow  movement.] 

7.  Get  one  of  the  best  story-tellers  you  know  to  tell 
you  a  story.  Write  as  well  as  you  can  what  you  learned 
from  the  way  in  which  it  was  told.  Keep  in  mind  such 
questions  as  these  :  Was  the  narrator  hurried  ?  deliberate  .-* 
Did  he  make  the  most  of  his  material .''  Did  he  omit  un- 
important details .''  Did  he  keep  you  guessing  about  the 
outcome  of  the  story .''  If  so,  how  ?  Was  the  ending  one 
that  is  easy  to  remember  ? 

8.  Write  an  original  story  (five  hundred  to  one  thousand 
words).  It  may  be  based  on  fact,  but  you  are  to  furnish 
the  plot  and  the  details.    See  that  it  is  true  to  life. 


CHAPTER   XVI 
DESCRIPTION 

"  Description  was  the  principal  field  of  my  exercise  ;  for  to  any  one  with 
senses  there  is  always  something  worth  describing,  and  town  and  country 
are  but  one  continuous  subject."  —  Stevenson. 

125.  Material  for  Pictures.  The  story-teller  frequently 
pauses  in  his  narrative  of  events  to  give  his  hearers  bits  of 
description,  and  all  of  us  have  occasion  again  and  again  to 
describe  as  accurately  as  possible  something  we  wish  to 
bring  before  a  listener.  If  we  could  only  open  our  eyes  and 
see  the  wealth  of  material  all  about  us,  we  should  find 
ourselves  continually  enriching  our  conversation  through 
descriptions.  "The  fact  is,"  says  Ruskin,  "that  there  is 
hardly  a  roadside  pond  or  pool  which  has  not  as  much  land- 
scape in  it  as  above  it.  It  is  not  the  brown,  muddy,  dull 
thing  we  suppose  it  to  be ;  it  has  a  heart  like  ourselves, 
and  in  the  bottom  of  that  there  are  the  boughs  of  the  tall 
trees,  and  the  blades  of  the  shaking  grass,  and  all  manner 
of  hues,  of  variable,  pleasant  light  out  of  the  sky  ;  nay,  the 
ugly  gutter,  that  stagnates  over  the  drain  bars,  in  the  heart 
of  the  foul  city,  is  not  altogether  base ;  down  in  that,  if 
you  will  look  deep  enough,  you  may  see  the  dark,  serious 
blue  of  far-off  sky,  and  the  passing  of  pure  clouds.  It  is  at 
your  own  will  that  you  see  in  that  despised  stream,  either 
the  refuse  of  the  street,  or  the  image  of  the  sky  —  so  it 
is  with  almost  all  other  things  that  we  unkindly  despise."  ^ 

1  "  Modern  Painters,"  Vol.  I,  Part  11,  sec.  v,  chap.  i. 
192 


A  LIMITED   SUBJECT  1 93 

It  is  not  enough  to  tell  what  we  have  seen.  Our  object 
should  be  to  paint  a  picture  that  shall  affect  our  listener  as 
the  original  observation  affected  us.  To  do  this  skillfully 
requires  study  and  practice. 

126.  A  Limited  Subject.  If  we  are  wise,  we  shall  choose 
a  subject  so  limited  that  our  description  will  naturally  have 
unity. 

EXERCISES 

1.  In  studying  Burroughs' s  description  of  the  walk  of  a 
crow,  answer  these  questions  :  Has  everything  a  bearing 
on  the  subject  ?  Is  the  opening  sentence  a  good  introduc- 
tion ?  Is  the  closing  sentence  an  emphatic  ending  ?  Read 
these  two  sentences  together,  and  then  write  what  you  con- 
sider the  main  thought  of  the  paragraph. 

I  have  seen  no  bird  walk  the  ground  with  just  the  same  air  the 
crow  does.  It  is  not  exactly  pride ;  there  is  no  strut  or  swagger  in 
it,  though  perhaps  just  a  little  condescension  ;  it  is  the  contented, 
complacent,  and  self-possessed  gait  of  a  lord  over  his  domains. 
All  these  acres  are  mine,  he  says,  and  all  these  crops ;  men  plow 
and  sow  for  me,  and  I  stay  here  or  go  there,  and  find  life  sweet 
and  good  wherever  I  am.  The  hawk  looks  awkward  and  out  of 
place  on  the  ground  ;  the  game  birds  hurry  and  skulk,  but  the 
crow  is  at  home  and  treads  the  earth  as  if  there  were  none  to 
molest  or  make  him  afraid.  —  "An  Idyl  of  the  Honey- Bee." 

2.  (i)  Make  a  list  of  five  subjects  suitable  for  description 
and  so  limited  that  it  will  be  easy  to  secure  unity.  {2)  Write 
on  one  of  the  subjects  that  you  like  best. 

3.  As  you  read  Hawthorne's  description  of  a  room,  put 
yourself  in  the  writer's  place.  Think  of  the  numerous  de- 
tails he  might  have  included  in  his  picture.  From  them  all 
he  selected  a  few.    Presenting  these  in  an  order  in  which 


194  DESCRIPTION 

a  visitor  would  naturally  see  them,  he  took  pains  to  point 
out  a  ehair  that  he  wished  us  to  notice  particularly. 

It  was  a  low-studded  room,  with  a  beam  across  the  ceiling, 
panelled  with  dark  wood,  and  having  a  large  chimney-piece,  set 
round  with  pictured  tiles,  but  now  closed  by  an  iron  fire-board, 
through  which  ran  the  funnel  of  a  modern  stove.  There  was  a 
carpet  on  the  floor,  originally  of  rich  texture,  but  so  worn  and 
faded  in  these  latter  years  that  its  once  brilliant  figure  had  quite 
vanished  into  one  indistinguishable  hue.  In  the  way  of  furni- 
ture, there  were  two  tables  :  one,  constructed  with  perplexing 
intricacy  and  exhibiting  as  many  feet  as  a  centipede ;  the  other, 
most  delicately  wrought,  with  four  long  and  slender  legs,  so 
apparently  frail  that  it  was  almost  incredible  what  a  length  of 
time  the  ancient  tea-table  had  stood  upon  them.  Half  a  dozen 
chairs  stood  about  the  room,  straight  and  stiff,  and  so  ingen- 
iously contrived  for  the  discomfort  of  the  human  person  that 
they  were  irksome  even  to  sight,  and  conveyed  the  ugliest  pos- 
sible idea  of  the  state  of  society  to  which  they  could  have  been 
adapted.  One  exception  there  was,  however,  in  a  very  antique 
elbow-chair,  with  a  high  back,  carved  elaborately  in  oak,  and  a 
roomy  depth  within  its  arms,  that  made  up,  by  its  spacious 
comprehensiveness,  for  the  lack  of  any  of  those  artistic  curves 
which  abound  in  a  modern  chair.  — "  The  House  of  the  Seven 
Gables,"  chap.  ii. 

4.  With  the  above  description  in  mind,  describe  the  in- 
terior of  a  room  which  interests  you. 

5.  Note  the  simplicity  of  Scott's  plan  in  this  description 
from  "  Rob  Roy,"  and  with  this  example  in  mind  describe 
orally  some  bit  of  scenery  that  has  pleased  you. 

The  glorious  beams  of  the  rising  sun,  which  poured  from  a 
tabernacle  of  purple  and  golden  clouds,  were  darted  full  on  such 
a  scene  of  natural  romance  and  beauty  as  had  never  before  greeted 
my  eyes.  To  the  left  lay  the  valley,  down  which  the  Forth  wan- 
dered on  its  easterly  course,  surrounding  the  beautiful  detached 


THE   POINT  OF  VIEW  195 

hill,  with  all  its  garland  of  woods.  On  the  right,  amid  a  profusion 
of  thickets,  knolls,  and  crags,  lay  the  head  of  a  broad  mountain 
lake,  lightly  curled  into  tiny  waves  by  the  breath  of  the  morn- 
ing breeze,  each  glittering  into  its  course  under  the  influence  of 
the  sunbeams.  High  hills,  rocks,  and  banks  waving  with  natural 
forests  of  birch  and  oak  formed  the  borders  of  this  enchant- 
ing sheet  of  water ;  and,  as  their  leaves  rustled  to  the  wind  and 
twinkied  in  the  sun,  gave  to  the  depth  of  solitude  a  sort  of  life 
and  vivacity. 

127.  The  Point  of  View.  After  choosing  the  subject,  the 
first  step  is  to  decide  upon  the  point  of  view.  Having  once 
fixed  this,  the  writer  should  not  change  it  without  giving 
the  reader  notice.  If  he  moves  forward  or  backward,  to 
the  right  or  to  the  left,  he  must  inform  the  reader.  After 
describing  the  view  from  an  east  window,  he  must  not 
call  attention  to  something  on  the  west  side  of  the  house 
without  showing  how  he  is  enabled  to  command  a  view  in 
that  direction. 

In  a  single  paragraph  of  "  The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow  " 
Irving  describes  the  outside  of  a  house,  the  piazza,  the  hall, 
the  parlor,  and  even  gives  us  a  peep  into  a  china  closet. 
Yet  he  is  so  careful  to  inform  us  of  every  movement  of  the 
wondering  Ichabod  that  we  follow  with  the  utmost  ease. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  Ichabod  went  no  farther  than  the 
hall ;  then  he  stood  and  looked  around. 

It  was  one  of  those  spacious  farmhouses,  with  high-ridged,  but 
lowly-sloping  roofs,  built  in  the  style  handed  down  from  the  first 
Dutch  settlers ;  the  low  projecting  eaves  forming  a  piazza  along 
the  front,  capable  of  being  closed  up  in  bad  weather.  Under  this 
were  hung  flails,  harness,  various  utensils  of  husbandry,  and  nets 
for  fishing  in  the  neighboring  river.  Benches  were  built  along 
the  sides  for  summer  use;    and  a  great  spinning-wheel  at  one 


196  DESCRIPTION 

end,  and  a  chum  at  the  other,  showed  the  various  uses  to  which 
this  important  porch  might  be  devoted.  I'rom  this  piazza  the  won- 
dering Ichabod  entered  the  hall,  which  formed  the  centre  of  the 
mansion  and  the  place  of  usual  residence.  Here,  rows  of  resplen- 
dent pewter,  ranged  on  a  long  dresser,  dazzled  his  eyes.  In  one 
corner  stood  a  huge  bag  of  wool  ready  to  be  spun ;  in  another  a 
quantity  of  linsey-woolsey  just  from  the  loom ;  ears  of  Indian 
corn,  and  strings  of  dried  apples  and  peaches,  hung  in  gay  fes- 
toons along  the  walls,  mingled  with  the  gaud  of  red  peppers ;  and 
a  door  left  ajar  gave  him  a  peep  into  the  best  parlor,  where 
the  claw-footed  chairs,  and  dark  mahogany  tables,  shone  like 
mirrors ;  and  irons,  with  their  accompanying  shovel  and  tongs, 
glistened  from  their  covert  of  asparagus  tops ;  mock-oranges  and 
conch-shells  decorated  the  mantelpiece  ;  strings  of  various  colored 
birds'  eggs  were  suspended  above  it :  a  great  ostrich  egg  was 
hung  from  the  centre  of  the  room,  and  a  corner  cupboard,  know- 
ingly left  open,  displayed  immense  treasures  of  old  silver  and 
well-mended  china.  —  Irving,  "The  Sketch- Book." 

These  words  show^  how  the  point  of  view  changes  :  From 
tJiis  piaa.'^a  Ichabod  entered  the  hall  .  .  .  a  door  left  ajar  gave 
him  a  peep  into  the  best  parlor  .  .  .  a  cupboard,  left  open. 


EXERCISES 

1.  Criticise,  with  reference  to  the  point  of  view,  the 
selections  under  section  126.  (i)  Does  the  writer  change 
his  point  of  view .?  (2)  If  so,  does  he  inform  the  reader  of 
every  such  change } 

2.  Describe  (i)  the  outside  of  a  building  from  one  posi- 
tion, and  (2)  the  inside  from  at  least  two  positions. 

128.  Choice  of  Details  and  Plan.  Nothing  is  of  greater 
importance  than  the  choosing  of  significant  details.  That 
choice  made,  your  problem  is  one  of  arrangement. 


CHOICE  OF  DETAILS  AND   PLAN  1 97 

In  the  following  lines  note  the  choice  of  significant  details 
and  the  skillful  management  of  them  : 

For  cups  and  silver  on  the  burnish'd  board 
Sparkled  and  shone ;   so  genial  was  the  hearth  : 
And  on  the  right  hand  of  the  hearth  he  saw 
Philip,  the  slighted  suitor  of  old  times, 
Stout,  rosy,  with  his  babe  across  his  knees ; 
And  o'er  her  second  father  stoopt  a  girl, 
A  later  but  a  loftier  Annie  Lee, 
Fair-hair 'd  and  tall,  and  from  her  lifted  hand 
Dangled  a  length  of  ribbon  and  a  ring 
To  tempt  the  babe,  who  rear'd  his  creasy  arms, 
Caught  at  and  ever  miss'd  it,  and  they  laugh 'd  : 
And  on  the  left  hand  of  the  hearth  he  saw 
The  mother  glancing  often  toward  her  babe. 
But  turning  now  and  then  to  speak  with  him, 
Her  son,  who  stood  beside  her  tall  and  strong, 
And  saying  that  which  pleased"  him,  for  he  smiled. 

Tennyson,  "  Enoch  Arden." 

Sometimes  a  writer  brings  his  plan  to  the  front.  Victor 
Hugo,  in  describing  the  field  of  Waterloo,  says  : 

Those  who  would  get  a  clear  idea  of  the  battle  of  \^'aterloo 
have  only  to  lay  down  upon  the  ground  in  their  mind  a  capital  A. 
The  left  stroke  of  the  A  is  the  road  from  Nivelles,  the  right  stroke 
is  the  road  from  Genappe,  the  cross  of  the  A  is  the  sunken  road 
from  Ohain  to  Braine  I'Alleud. 

Newman's  description  of  Attica  begins  : 

A  confined  triangle,  perhaps  fifty  miles  its  greatest  length,  and 
thirty  its  .greatest  breadth. 

It  is  a  help  to  clearness  to  say  that  a  church  takes  the 
form  of  a  cross  or  of  an  amphitheater.  You  may  know  of 
a  peninsula  that  might  be  likened  to  a  finger,  of  a  road 


198  DESCRIPTION 

that  resembles  an  S,  of  a  river  that  may  be  eompared  to 
a  horseshoe  or  an  oxbow.     Do  you  ? 

EXERCISE 

After  making  a  plan  whieh  will  be  sure  to  come  to  the 
front,  describe  some  view  that  has  made  a  great  impression 
on  you.    Choose  important  details. 

DESCRIPTION    BY   SUGGESTION 

VVe  frequently  try  to  write  so  that  another  person  shall 
see  just  what  we  see,  but  in  many  instances  the  wiser 
course  is  to  make  the  reader  feel  as  we  feel.  Thomas 
Bailey  Aldrich  says,  "  I  like  to  have  a  thing  suggested 
rather  than  told  in  full.  When  every  detail  is  .given,  the 
mind  rests  satisfied,  and  the  imagination  loses  all  desire 
to  use  its  own  wings."  .Sometimes  a  word  or  a  phrase  is 
more  suggestive  than  a  page  of  details.  You  will  find  the 
following  worth  study : 

1.  The  smiler,  with  the  knife  under  the  cloak. 

"This  verse,"  says  Lowell,  "makes  us  glance  over  our  shoulders, 
as  if  we  heard  a  stealthy  tread  behind  us." 

2.  Next  stood  Hypocrisy  with  holy  leer, 
Soft  smiHng  and  demurely  looking  down. 
But  hid  the  dagger  underneath  the  gown. 

3.  Look  like  the  innocent  flower, 
But  be  the  serpent  under't. 

EXERCISES 

1.  See  in  how  many  effective  ways  you  can  bring  out 
the  thought  of  the  following  : 

1.  Mutiny,  it  was  plain,  hung  over  us  like  a  thundercloud. 

2.  In  came  Mrs.  Fezziwig,  one  vast  substantial  smile. 


DESCRIPTION   BY  SUGGESTION  1 99 

Suggesting  how  things  influence  the  spectator  or  the 
actor  is  called  description  by  ejfect. 

2.  Read  the  following  paragraph  aloud  until  }'ou  can 
read  it  well.  Is  it  an  example  of  description  by  effect  ? 
How  did  Nehushta  feel  in  the  atmosphere  described  ?  How 
does  the  description  make  you  feel  ? 

The  peace  of  the  evening  descended  upon  her  [Nehushta]  ; 
the  birds  of  the  day  ceased  singing  with  the  growing  darkness; 
and  slowly,  out  of  the  plain,  the  yellow  moon  soared  up  and 
touched  the  river  and  the  meadows  with  mystic  light ;  while  far 
off,  in  the  rose-thickets  of  the  gardens,  the  first  notes  of  a  single 
nightingale  floated  upon  the  scented  breeze,  swelling  and  trilling, 
quivering  and  falling  again,  in  a  glory  of  angelic  song.  The  faint 
air  fanned  her  cheek,  the  odours  of  the  box  and  the  myrtle  and 
the  roses  intoxicated  her  senses,  and  as  the  splendid  shield  of  the 
rising  moon  cast  its  broad  light  into  her  dreaming  eyes,  her  heart 
overflowed,  and  Nehushta  the  princess  lifted  up  her  voice  and 
sang  an  ancient  song  of  love,  in  the  tongue  of  her  people,  to  a 
soft  minor  melody,  that  sounded  like  a  sigh  from  the  southern 
desert.  —  F.  Marion  Crawford,  "Zoroaster,"  chap.  ii. 

3.  Describe  some  peaceful  scene  in  such  a  way  that  the 
reader  will  feel  calm. 

4.  Describe  some  exciting  scene  in  such  a  way  that  you 
will  excite  your  reader. 

5.  Describe  a  happy  scene  in  such  a  way  that  the  reader 
cannot  help  feeling  happy. 

129.  Reproduction  of  Sensations.  We  are  so  dependent 
on  our  eyesight  that  it  is  well  to  remind  ourselves  occasion- 
ally that  \VQ  have  other  senses.  Obviously  one  will  not 
often  sit  down  and  say,  "  In  writing  to-day  I  will  use  words 
that  describe  taste,  touch,  smell,  and  sound."  We  use  the 
words  that  the  subject  demands.    On  the  other  hand,  if  we 


200  DESCRIPTION 

are  well  developed,  if  wc  arc  in  the  habit  of  using  the  five 
senses,  we  are  much  more  likely  to  recognize  and  respond 
to  the  demands  of  the  subject. 

The  man  of  rich  and  varied  experience  is  the  man  whom 
we  expect  to  be  most  interesting  as  a  talker  or  as  a  writer. 
The  man  whose  senses  are  constantly  contributing  to  his 
appreciation  and  enjoyment  of  life  naturally  speaks  and 
writes  in  a  vigorous,  hearty  style.  If  we  study  men  like 
Stevenson  and  Kipling,  we  shall  find  that  they  make  fre- 
quent use  of  the  five  senses.  They  could  not  have  written 
with  such  accuracy,  completeness,  and  point  unless  they 
had  acquired  the  habit  of  being  alert.  Like  them  we  must 
learn  our  trade.  Not  satisfied  with  hazy  notions  about 
things,  we  must  take  pains  repeatedly  to  put  into  words 
just  what  we  see  or  hear  or  taste  or  smell  or  touch.  By 
using  our  senses  in  this  way  we  shall  gain  real  enjoyment, 
and  we  shall  become  much  more  interesting  to  those  with 
whom  we  associate ;  for  whether  we  write  or  talk,  we  shall 
have  an  inexhaustible  fund  to  draw  from  in  making  our 
meaning  clear  both  in  statement  and  in  illustrations.  Rich 
indeed  is  the  writer  who  has  at  his  command  illustrative 
material  that  he  has  gathered  from  a  vigorous  use  of  keen 
senses,  in  doors  and  out. 

EXERCISES 

1.  How  many  of  the  five  senses  did  the  writer  use  in 
connection  with  the  following  paragraphs  ?  Note  all  indica- 
tions of  activity.  Read  the  selections  aloud  until  you  can 
enter  into  the  spirit  of  each  of  them. 

It  was  one  January  morning,  very  early  —  a  pinching,  frosty 
morning  —  the  cove  all  grey  with  hoar-frost,  the  ripple  lapping 


DESCRIPTION   BY  SUGGESTION  20I 

softly  on  the  stones,  the  sun  still  low  and  only  touching  the  hill- 
toi)s  and  shining  far  to  seaward.  The  captain  had  risen  earlier 
than  usual,  and  set  out  down  the  beach,  his  cutlass  swinging  under 
the  broad  skirts  of  the  old  blue  coat,  his  brass  telescope  under 
his  arm,  his  hat  tilted  back  upon  his  head.  '*1  remember  his  breath 
hanging  like  smoke  in  his  wake  as  he  strode  off,  and  the  last  sound 
I  heard  of  him,  as  he  turned  the  big  rock,  was  a  loud  snort  of 
indignation,  as  though  his  mind  was  still  running  upon  Dr.Livesey. 
—  Stevenson,  "Treasure  Island,"  chap,  ii. 

There  is  one  day  when  all  things  are  tired,  and  the  very  smells, 
as  they  drift  on  the  heavy  air,  are  old  and  used.  One  cannot 
explain  this,  but  it  feels  so.  Then  there  is  another  day  —  to  the 
eye  nothing  whatever  has  changed  —  when  all  the  smells  are 
new  and  delightful,  and  the  whiskers  of  the  Jungle  People  quiver 
to  their  roots  and  the  winter  hair  comes  away  from  their  sides  in 
long,  draggled  locks.  Then,  perhaps,  a  little  rain  falls,  and  all  the 
trees  and  the  bushes  and  the  bamboos  and  the  mosses  and  the 
juicy-leaved  plants  wake  with  a  noise  of  growing  that  you  can 
almost  hear,  and  under  this  noise  runs,  day  and  night,  a  deep 
hum.  That  is  the  noise  of  the  spring  —  a  vibrating  boom  which 
is  neither  bees,  nor  falling  water,  nor  the  wind  in  the  tree-tops, 
but  the  purring  of  the  warm,  happy  world.  —  Rudyard  Kipling, 
"The  Spring  Running"  in  "The  Second  Jungle  Book." 

2.  Make  a  list  of  a  few  instances  in  which  an  appeal  to 
the  sense  of  smell  might  add  to  your  description.  Discuss 
the  following  expressions  and  put  any  of  them  on  your  list  : 
fresh  lumber,  fresh-cut  hay,  burning  leaves,  lilacs,  mignon- 
ette, summer  dust  in  the  country,  the  earth  in  spring,  a 
rank  low-tide  odor,  pine  trees,  moist  meadow,  musty  meadow, 
porgy  factory,  barn. 

3.  Make  a  similar  list  of  sounds.  In  the  city  we  have  a 
continual  roar,  made  up  of  the  rattle  of  carts,  the  banging 
of  cars,  the  calling  of  children,  etc.;   in  the  country  we 


202  DESCRIPTION 

hear  the  meadow  lark,  the  song  sjiarrow,  the  frog,  the  flut- 
ter of  the  wings  of  a  bird,  etc.;  in  a  factory  town  at  noon, 
the  whistles,  bells,  talking  and  laughing ;  at  the  seaside,  the 
roar  of  the  sea,  etc.;  on  the  Fourth  of  July,  the  boom  of 
cannon,  etc. 

4.  Describe  in  a  single  word  the  atmosphere  of  (i)  a 
room,  (2)  a  home,  (3)  a  school  building,  (4)  a  town  or  vil- 
lage, (5)  a  city. 

130.  Directions  for  Writing  Descriptions.  We  shall  find 
it  helpful  in  writing  descriptions  to  keep  in  mind  the  follow- 
ing directions,  based  on  what  we  have  seen  to  be  desirable 
in  a  good  description. 

1.  We  must  indicate  clearly  our  point  of  view.  If  it 
changes,  we  must  notify  the  reader. 

2.  We  should  choose  significant  details  and  have  a  defi- 
nite plan  in  presenting  these  details. 

3.  We  should  try  to  make  the  reader  see  what  we  see  or 
feel  as  we  feel. 

4.  We  should  be  fully  alive  as  we  write  —  ready  to  use 
any  of  the  senses,  and  even  more  alert  to  secure  the  closest 
attention  than  we  should  be  in  telling  a  story. 

EXERCISES 

1.   Choose  one  of  the  following  subjects  : 

1.  Indicate  what  a  man  who  has  no  sense  of  smell  cannot 
appreciate  as  he  walks  through  the  woods  in  spring. 

2.  (i)  Write  out  fully  what  a  man  with  only  one  sense  —  hear- 
ing—  might  easily  get  from  a  five  minutes'  walk  in  the  woods. 
Choose  whichever  season  you  prefer.  (2)  Point  out  what,  in 
addition,  a  watchful  eve  may  discover  under  these  circumstances. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  WRITING  DESCRIPTIONS    203 

3.  Imagining  that  you  have  only  two  senses,  —  hearing  and 
touch,  —  describe  (i)  a  walk  in  the  woods  or  in  a  village  or  city, 
or  (2)  a  meeting  with  a  pet  animal,  say  a  dog. 

4.  In  writing  a  brief  account  of  the  catching  of  a  fish,  take  ad- 
vantage of  all  the  opportunities  you  may  have  to  make  use  of 
sound,  smell,  and  touch.    See  that  your  description  is  lively. 

5.  In  describing  the  broiling  and  serving  of  a  fish,  give  especial 
attention  to  smell  and  taste. 

2.  Write  on  a  subject  in  connection  with  which  you  can 
advantageously  use  the  five  senses.  Consider  from  this 
point  of  view  the  following:  My  Pet  Dog;  Climbing  Moimt 

;  An  Hour's  Swimming  ;  Coasting  (whether  on  a  sled 

ov  on  a  bicycle.  Describe  the  taste  and  touch  of  the 
air)  ;  A  Clam  Bake  ;  In  a  Gymnasium  ;  Playing  the  Piano ; 
A  Rain  Storm  ;  A  Football  Game  ;  Making  Candy  ;  A  Fire 
in  the  Woods  ;  A  Day's  Sailing  ;  A  Snowball  Fight  ;  Skat- 
ing in  the  Morning. 

3.  Describe  the  appearance  of  some  character  in  a  story. 
Make  your  picture  as  lifelike  as  possible. 

4.  Describe  one  of  the  following  :  (i)  a  typical  farmyard 
scene;  (2)  a  rare  coin;  (3)  an  artistic  postage  stamp;  (4)  a 
typical  evening  in  your  home,  or  an  ideal  evening;  (5)  an 
entertainment  you  have  attended  recently. 

5.  (i)  Describe  some  small  boys  at  play.  (2)  Criticise 
in  writing  under  the  heads  of  {\)  point  of  view^  (2)  life,  the 
description  written  by  one  of  your  classmates. 

6.  WVite  the  description  suggested  by  any  one  of  the 
following : 

I.  He  was  a  comely,  handsome  fellow,  perfectly  well  made, 
with  straight  strong  limbs,  not  too  large  ;  tall  and  well-shaped, 
and,  as  I  reckon,  about  twenty-six  years  of  age  .  .  .  countenance 
.  .  .  smile  .  .  .  hair  .  .  .  forehead  .  .  .  eyes. 


204  DESCRIPTION 

2.  By  this  time  the  sun  had  gone  down,  and  was  tinting  the 
clouds  towards  the  zenith  with  those  bright  hues  which  are  not 
seen  there  until  some  time  after  sunset,  when  the  horizon  has 
cjuite  lost  its  richer  brilliancy.  The  moon  .  .  .  the  old  house  .  .  . 
the  garden.  .  .  . 

3.  About  a  (quarter  of  an  hour  before  the  second  ringing  of 
the  bell,  members  of  the  congregation  begin  to  appear. 

4.  I  built  a  cottage  for  Susan  and  myself,  and  made  a  gate- 
way in  the  form  of  a  Gothic  arch,  by  setting  up  a  whale's  jaw- 
bones .  .   .  heifer  .  .   .  garden  .   .   .  parlor. 

5.  The  fog  had  now  lifted,  so  that  I  could  form  a  better  idea 
of  the  lay  of  the  land. 

6.  After  nightfall  we  went  out  and  walked  up  and  down  the 
grass-grown  streets. 

7.  The  Baltimore  oriole  loves  to  attach  its  nest  to  the  sway- 
ing branches  of  the  tallest  elms. 

8.  At  length  the  shadows  began  to  lengthen,  the  wind  .  .  . 
calm  .  .  .  the  sun  .  .  .  Sabbath  stillness  .  .  .  valley  .  .  .  the 
farmer  .  .  .  the  ox  .  .   .  the  school  urchin.  .   .   . 

9.  He  was  meanly  dressed. 

10.  The  town  appeared  to  be  waking  up.  A  baker's  cart  had 
already  rattled  through  the  street,  chasing  away  the  latest  vestige 
of  night's  sanctity  with  the  jingle-jangle  of  its  dissonant  bells. 
A  milkman.  .   .   . 

7.  Choose  one  of  the  following  subjects  for  a  short 
theme  : 

1.  Describe  the  view  from  a  window.  If  you  like,  you  may 
read  Irving's  account  of  a  view  from  a  window  in  "  Christmas 
Day"  (in  "The  Sketch-Book").  See  the  third  paragraph,  begin- 
ning, "  Everything  conspired,"  etc.  Is  the  plan  clear?  Note  the 
force  of  the  active  verbs. 

2.  Describe  the  house  in  which  you  live  so  that  a  stranger  will 
get  a  clear  picture.    Be  careful  about  your  point  of  view. 

3.  Describe  a  cottage  sheltered  by  a  large  elm. 


EXERCISES  205 

8.   In  writing  a  criticism  of  a  description  written  by  one 
of  your  classmates,  answer  these  questions  : 

1.  Does  the  writer  indicate  clearly  his  point  of  view? 

2.  Has  he  chosen  significant  details? 

3.  Has  he  a  definite  plan  in  presenting  the  details? 

4.  What  words  are  particularly  well  chosen  ?  Why  ? 


CHAPTER   XVII 

EXPOSITION 

"  Learn  to  see  and  to  hear.  Seeing  and  hearing  are  more  matters  of  the 
brain  than  of  eye  and  ear.  .  .  .  Exposition  demands  .  .  .  the"  exercise  of 
reason  as  well  as  of  observation,  but  the  two  are  closely  bound  together; 
and  the  mind  which  is  trained  to  see  is  as  sure  to  reason  about  what  it 
sees  as  the  plant  which  thrusts  its  rootlets  into  the  rich  soil  is  to  grow." 

Arlo  Bates. 

131.  The  Meaning  of  Exposition.  Every  boy  who  knows 
how  to  sail  a  boat  enjoys  telUng  how  he  does  it.  A  good 
swimmer  hkes  to  let  a  beginner  into  the  secret  of  his  skill. 
The  tennis  player  sometimes  tries  to  give  his  friends  some 
notion  of  what  he  means  by  "  thirty-love."  In  each  of  these 
cases  there  is  a  demand  for  explanation,  or,  as  we  some- 
times call  it,  exposition. 

You  may  know  how  the  town  in  which  you  live  came  to 
have  a  high-school  building.  If  you  were  to  give  this  his- 
tory, you  would  call  your  work  narration.  Should  you  by 
the  use  of  words  make  a  picture  of  the  schoolhouse,  you 
would  produce  a  description.  But  if  you  explain  the  uses 
of  the  building,  the  result  is  an  exposition. 

In  describing  a  thing  we  tell  of  its  appearance  ;  in  ex- 
plaining it  we  expose,  or  "  set  forth,"  its  meaning.  One  who 
has  attended  a  typical  "town  meeting"  can  give  an  enter- 
taining account  of  what  he  saw  there,  but  it  is  another 
matter  to  make  a  foreigner  comprehend  what  "town  meet- 
ing "  really  means.  It  is  one  thing  to  describe  a  friend  so 
that  a  stranger  can  pick  him  out  in  a  crowd  ;  it  is  a  very 

206 


THE   MEANING  OF   EXPOSITION  207 

different  undertaking  to  explain  the  secret  of  your  friend's 

cheerful  countenance. 

In  reading  a  biography  we  are  not  satisfied  with  a 
description  of  a  man's  appearance  ;  we  wish  to  know  what 
sort  of  man  he  was.  We  turn  year  after  year  to  Lockhart's 
"Life  of  Scott,"  Southey's  "Life  of  Nelson,"  and  Plutarch's 
"Lives,"  because  these  authors  enable  us  to  understand  how 
their  heroes  accomplished  what  they  accomplished. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  directions  for  playing  quoits,  duck  on  a  rock,  or 
hop-scotch.    If  your  subject  is  quoits,  you  may  use  this  plan  : 

1.  The  outfit. 

a.  Horseshoes. 

b.  The  "hub"  (stake). 

2.  Position  of  the  players. 

3.  Object  of  the  players. 

4.  Keeping  the  score. 

2.  Give  directions  for  making  soup,  bread,  or  cake  ;  or 
for  freezing  ice  cream  ;  or  for  building  a  coal  fire,  cleaning 
a  bicycle,  or  harnessing  a  horse. 

3.  Show  to  what  extent  an  account  of  the  battle  of 
Thermopylae  might "  be  an  exposition  ;  or,  show  to  what 
extent  the  account  in  the  history  you  study  is  an  exposition. 

4.  Write  a  theme  "setting  forth  "  the  main  character- 
istics of  the  hero  of  a  story,  or  of  one  of  the  principal  per- 
sons in  the  story. 

132.  Unity.  Having  chosen  a  limited  subject,  think  it 
through  and  write  the  substance  of  what  you  wish  to  say 
in  a  single  sentence.  If  you  keep  this  sentence  summary 
constantly  in  mind,  your  work  will  probably  be  a  unit.    If, 


2o8  EXPOSITION 

for  example,  you  are  explaining  baseball,  your  sentence 
summary  might  be  :  "  Baseball  is  a  field  game,  played  with 
bat  and  ball,  by  eighteen  men,  nine  on  a  side."  In  explain- 
ing a  steam  engine,  you  might  say  that  "  a  steam  engine 
may  be  defined  as  an  apparatus  for  doing  work  by  means 
of  heat  applied  to  water."  ^  Does  that  seem  to  you  a  good 
sentence  summary  ? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Explain  in  a  single  sentence  the  main  difference  be- 
tween an  adjective  and  an  adverb,  or  between  work  and  play. 

2.  Sum  up  in  a  written  sentence  the  main  features,  as 
you  understand  them,  of  one  of  the  following  games  :  foot- 
ball, tennis,  golf,  cricket,  checkers,  chess. 

3.  (i)  Select  a  subject  on  which  you  can  write  an  exposi- 
tion. After  thinking  of  practically  everything  you  are  to 
include  in  your  theme,  and  before  beginning  the  theme, 
write  in  one  sentence  the  main  thought  you  are  to  bring 
out.  (2)  Write  your  paper.  (3)  If  you  have  not  succeeded 
in  "  setting  forth  "  the  thought  of  your  summary  sentence, 
revise  either  the  sentence  or  the  theme. 

133.  Arrangement  of  Material.  In  connection  with  unity 
we  must  have  coherence,  —  an  orderly  arrangement  of  our 
material,  — •  and  in  order  to  secure  it  we  can  well  afford  to 
take  great  pains  in  making  a  definite  plan. 

Suppose  our  subject  is  baseball.  The  first  question  is, 
What  do  we  need  in  order  to  play  the  game  ?  And  in  the 
first  division  of  our  paper  we  naturally  tell  about  (i)  the 
field,  (2)  the  bat,  and  (3)  the  ball.  Then  we  explain  the 
positions  of  the  players  and  point  out  how  the  game  is 
played. 

1  Hammond  Lamoiit,  "  Specimens  of  Exposition,"  p.  xi. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF   MATERIAL  209 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  plan  for  the  above  subject.  Use  the  vertical 
arrangement  (see  Chapter  XIV). 

2.  Make  a  plan  of  the  following  paragraph  : 

When  we  ask  for  more  time  for  schools,  we  are  always  met  by 
this  objection  :  The  children  can  hardly  stand  the  stress  to  which 
they  are  now  subjected.  Are  we  to  overtax  them  still  more?  I 
believe  there  are  three  good  answers  to  this  objection.  The  first 
is  ventilation.  If  you  will  take  the  excess  of  carbonic  acid  out  of 
the  schoolroom,  you  can  keep  the  children  in  it  longer,  without 
hurting  them  as  much  as  you  do  now.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  the  teachers.  The  strain  upon  teachers  is  greatly  increased  by 
the  badness  of  the  air  in  which  they  habitually  work.  Secondly, 
the  stress  upon  the  children  can  be  greatly  diminished  by  the 
systematic  use  of  gymnastic  movements  during  school  hours  and 
in  the  schoolrooms.  I  submit  that  the  American  people  ought  to 
learn  from  the  experience  of  European  nations  in  this  respect.  It 
has  been  conclusively  demonstrated  that  brief  intervals  for  gym- 
nastic exercises  throughout  the  public  schools  of  Scandinavia  and 
Germany  do  keep  the  children  in  good  condition,  and  do  enable 
them  to  sustain  without  injury  a  greater  amount  of  rnental  work 
than  I  have  just  suggested  for  American  children.  Thirdly,  the 
stress  or  strain  upon  children  can  be  much  diminished  by  making 
the  work  interesting  to  them,  instead  of  dull,  as  much  of  it  now 
is.  It  is  extraordinary  how  fatigue  is  prevented  or  diminished  by 
mental  interest.  As  I  have  lately  read  the  readers  used  in  my 
sample  grammar  school,  worked  its  sums,  and  read  its  geography 
and  its  book  on  manners,  it  has  seemed  to  me  that  the  main 
characteristic  of  the  instruction,  as  developed  through  those 
books,  —  unless  lightened  by  the  personality  of  the  teacher,  —  is 
dullness,  a  complete  lack  of  human  interest,  and  a  consequent 
lack  in  the  child  of  tbe  sense  of  increasing  power.  Nothing  is  so 
fatiguing  as  dull,  hopeless  effort,  with  the  feeling  that,  do  one's 
best,  one  cannot  succeed.    That  is  the  condition  of  too  many 


2IO  EXPOSITION 

children  in  American  schools  —  not  the  condition  for  half  an 
hour,  but  the  chronic  condition  day  after  day  and  month  after 
month.  Make  the  work  interesting,  and  give  the  children  the 
sense  of  success,  and  the  stress  which  is  now  felt  by  them  will 
be  greatly  diminished.  —  Charles  William  Eliot,  "An  Aver- 
age Massachusetts  Grammar  School"  in  "Educational  Reform," 
pp.  183-185. 

3.  (i)  Profiting  by  whatever  suggestions  you  can  get 
from  paragraph  and  plan,  write  in  a  similar  way  about 
some  one  whom  you  know  well,  say  an  aunt.  (2)  After 
your  writing  is  done,  put  at  the  end  of  it  what  you  con- 
sider the  main  thought. 

4.  Make  an  outline  of  the  character  (i)  of  a  book  hero 
of  yours  ;   (2)   of  an  acquaintance. 

Sometimes  the  subject  determines  the  order  of  the  main 
divisions  of  an  outline.  When  you  are  free  to  choose  the 
order,  do  not  try  to  give  the  most  difficult  part  of  your  ex- 
planation at  once,  but  begin  with  something  which  is  com- 
paratively easy, —  if  possible,  with  something  about  which 
the  reader  is  not  entirely  ignorant,  —  and  lead  from  that 
to  the  parts  which  are  harder  to  understand.  In  other 
words,  begin  with  the  simple  and  work  toward  the  complex. 
If,  for  instance,  you  were  to  explain  the  game  of  tennis, 
you  surely  would  not  call  attention  at  once  to  the  meaning 
of  deuce  set.  What  method  did  you  adopt  in  the  case  of 
your  baseball  outline .'' 

If  you  can  be  clear  and  at  the  same  time  secure  climax, 
by  all  means  do  so  ;  but  remember  that  no  matter  how  in- 
teresting you  make  your  explanation,  it  is  a  failure  if  it  is 
not  clear. 


ILLUSTRATION   BY  EXAMPLES  211 

5.  (i)  Write  out  the  main  divisions  of  a  plan  of  one  of 
the  following  subjects  :  croquet,  diabolo,  tennis,  checkers, 
hockey,  basket-ball,  chess,  or  some  other  game.  (2)  Insert 
subdivisions  in  your  plan.  (3)  Write  the  theme.  (4)  See 
that  theme  and  plan  agree. 

134.  Illustration  by  Examples.  Let  us  suppose  a  younger 
brother  of  yours  discovers  that  you  are  puzzling  your  brains 
over  exposition,  and  that  he  asks  you  to  tell  him  what  that 
big  word  means.  It  is  not  a  difficult  task.  Suppose  you 
should  tell  him  that  in  explaining  the  use  of  a  tool  in  his 
carpenter's  chest,  the  working  of  some  machinery  he  has 
constructed,  and  in  dozens  of  similar  ways  every  day  of 
his  life  he  is  making  use  of  exposition.  See  if  he  does  not 
catch  your  meaning  quickly  if  you  give  him  several  illus- 
trations. People  crave  the  example  just  as  they  jump  at 
the  specific  word. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Add  to  your  outlines  of  characters  (Exercise  4)  illus- 
trations by  examples. 

2.  Mention  five  subjects  in  the  explanation  of  which  you 
would  naturally  give  examples.  Use  some  of  the  following, 
or  others  of  your  own  selection  : 

I.  "The  way  of  transgressors  is  hard."  2.  "Forbearance 
ceases  to  be  a  virtue."  3.  "Ill  blows  the  wind  that  profits 
nobody."  4.  "A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing."  5.  "All 
that  glisters  is  not  gold."  6.  "  'Tis  distance  lends  enchantment 
to  the  view." 

135.  Illustration  by  Comparison.  One  of  the  simplest 
ways  to  explain  a  thing  is  to  begin  by  tclHng  what  it  is 
not,  or  to  compare  and  contrast  it  with  something  else. 


2 1 2  EXPOSITION 

EXERCISES 

1.  In  this  connection  discuss  the  following  subjects  : 
(i)  A  Home  (compare  a  Jiousc) ';  (2)  A  Village  (compare 
a  city). 

2.  Make  a  plan  of  the  following  selection  : 

Once  in  the  span  of  a  generation  of  men  comes  a  chess  genius, 
who,  submitting  to  be  blindfolded,  carries  on  successfully  against 
twenty  antagonists  twenty  simultaneous  games  of  chess  ...  he 
works  only  at  certain  hours  and  under  conditions  of  his  own 
choosing.   .  .  . 

Yet  the  work  of  this  marvel  ...  is  only  the  work  of  the  train- 
despatcher,  who,  blindfolded  by  four  white  walls,  his  right  hand 
on  the  key  and  his  eye  fastened  on  the  figures  of  a  train-sheet, 
forces  his  mind,  when  other  men  are  asleep,  to  visualize  the  long, 
winding  miles  of  his  division  —  its  trains,  its  passing  tracks  and 
curves,  its  towers  and  stations,  its  semaphores  and  switches.  At 
twenty  points  in  the  darkness  of  his  night  .  .  .  are  swiftly  mov- 
ing trains  of  Pullman  cars.  .  .  .  This  man  is  no  genius ;  he  is 
the  plain,  every-day  American  ...  he  j)lays  every  day.  .  .  .  He 
cannot  play  twenty  games  and  rest ;  he  must  for  eight  hours  be 
ready  steadily  for  every  game  that  comes  over  the  wires  against 
him,  whether  of  storms,  blockades,  breakdowns,  or  wrecks.  — 
Frank  Spearman,  "  The  Nerves  of  the  Road,"  The  Outlook. 

3.  With  the  preceding  selection  and  plan  in  mind,  write 
a  comparison  of  two  persons  whom  you  know  well,  or  of 
whom  you  have  read  widely. 

4.  What  characters  seem  as  real  to  you  as  persons  with 
whom  you  are  acquainted  1  Tell  briefly  but  definitely  of 
two.  Show  how  well  yoa  know  them  ;  and  if  you  can,  tell 
why  it  almost  seems  as  if  you  had  met  them. 

5.  Arrange  your  time  so  that  you  can  have  at  least  three 
hours  during  the  coming  week  to  spend  on  a  book  approved 
by  the  teacher.     At  the  end  of  the  week  write  briefly  what 


DIRECTIONS   FOR  WRITING   EXPOSITION      213 

you  think  of  the  book  as  far  as  you  have  read.  At  the  end 
of  the  second  week  write  another  report  of  your  reading, 
and  so  on  until  you  finish  the  book. 

136.  Directions  for  Writing  Exposition.  In  general,  the 
most  important  aids  in  securing  clear  and  forcible  expo- 
sition are  : 

1.  Unity. 

2.  Logical  arrangement. 

3.  Illustration  by  examples  or  by  comparison. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Explain  briefly,  with  as  many  illustrations  as  you 
choose  to  add,  the  correct  use  of  the  following  words  : 
awful,  funny,   cunning,   lovely. 

2.  Explain  one  :  (i)  how  to  broil  steak  ;  (2)  some  system 
of  ventilation ;  (3)  a  method  of  sharpening  a  lead  pencil ; 
(4)  some  patent  ;  (5)  bread  making;  (6)  how  to  make  a 
Welsh  rarebit ;  (7)  the  block  system  (in  connection  with 
a  railway)  ;  (8)  some  system  of  heating. 

3.  Explain  one :  some  technical  term  taken  from  ( i )  music ; 
(2)  the  carpenter  shop  ;  (3)  mechanical  drawing ;  (4)  free- 
hand drawing  ;  or  (5)  mathematics. 

4.  Write  on  one  of  the  following  subjects  : 

1.  Honesty  is  the  best  policy.    (Illustration  by  examples.) 

2.  It  was  clearly  a  time  for  discretion. 

3.  Explain  how  you  made  some  such  article  as  these  :  pencil 
tray,  book  rack,  picture  frame,  stamp  box,  jewel  case,  flower  trellis, 
napkin  ring,  goblet,  wallet,  rolling  pin,  gavel,  dumb-bells. 

5.  Write  on  one  of  the  following  subjects  : 

I.  A  Ballad.  2.  A  Touchdown.  3.  A  Hazard  (golf).  4.  Uses 
of  Public  Libraries.    5,  Reforms  suggested  in  "Oliver  Twist."   6.  A 


2  14  EXPOSITION 

Summer  Sport  in  the  Country.  7.  A  Winter  Amusement  in  Cities. 
8.  The  Industry  of  Walter  Scott.  9.  The  Humble  Origin  of  Great 
Men.  10.  Nelson*'s  Courage.  11.  The  Care  of  Potted  Plants 
in  Winter.  12.  How  to  raise  Celery.  13.  Setting  the  Table  for 
Dinner.  14.  How  to  tell  a  Fir  Tree  from  a  Spruce.  15.  How  to 
make  a  Kite.  16.  The  Making  of  Turpentine.  17.  The  Making  of 
Cider.  18.  Handball.  19.  A  Sun  Dial.  20.  A  Simple  Steam  En- 
gine. 21.  Ice  Cutting.  22.  The  Force  Pump.  23.  How  to  row  a 
Boat.  24.  How  to  keep  a  Lawn.  25.  The  Air  Brake.  26.  How 
to  make  a  Pair  of  Skees. 

6.  (i)  Choose  from  the  subjects  just  given  that  one  which 
appeals  to  you  as  the  best  for  an  essay  of  some  six  hundred 
words.  (2)  In  preparing  a  plan,  consider  (a)  unity,  {b)  ar- 
rangement, if)  the  acU^antage  of  illustration  by  examples  or 
by  comparison.    (3)  Write  the  essay. 

7.  Explain  your  methods  of  writing.  In  doing  so,  answer 
the  following  questions  : 

1.  Do  you  write  rapidly? 

2.  Do  you  alter  the  first  draft  much? 

3.  Do  you  find  composition  hard  ?  Under  what  conditions  is 
it  most  difficult?  least  difficult? 

4.  To  what  extent  have  you  found  outlines,  or  plans,  useful? 

5.  Do  you  keep  an  audience  or  a  reader  in  mind  as  you  write? 

6.  Do  you  read  your  work  aloud  slowly,  sentence  by  sentence? 
If  so,  has  this  method  helped  you  in  revising  the  sentences,  the 
spelling,  or  the  punctuation? 

8.  In  a  similar  way  tell  the  class  about  your  reading 
habits.  First  prepare  a  plan.  In  addition  to  the  topics 
that  will  be  suggested  by  the  above  questions,  consider 
the  use  of  the  dictionary  and  other  helps. 

9.  Bearing  in  mind  that  a  book  review  should  give  us  a 
brief  account  of  the  subject-matter  and  its  treatment,  tell 


EXERCISES  2  1 5 

whether  the  following  review  of  "  Specimens  of  the  Short 
Story,"  by  George  Henry  Nettleton,  Ph.D.,  is  satisfactory. 
Does  the  book  seem  worth  your  reading  ? 

Dr.  Nettleton's  selections  are  interesting.  For  what  may  be 
termed  a  sketch  —  the  study  of  narrative  in  its  lowest  terms  —  he 
chooses  Lamb's  "Superannuated  Man";  for  the  tale,  pure  and 
simple,  Irving's  "  Rip  Van  Winkle,"  ^ — that  first  great  creation  of 
American  fiction  ;  for  an  allegory,  Hawthorne's  "  Great  Stone 
Face";  for  a  detective  story,  Poe's  "Purloined  Letter";  for  a 
burlesque,  Thackeray's  "  Phil  Fogarty";  for  a' story  of  incident, 
Dickens's  "Doctor  Manette's  Manuscript";  for  a  psychological 
story,  Stevenson's  "Markheim";  and  for  a  local-color  story, 
Mr.  Bret  Harte's  "Outcasts  of  Poker  Flat."  These  are  not  only 
good  specimens  of  the  best  narration ;  they  also  present  pecul- 
iarly profitable  material  for  the  study  of  the  art  of  narrative 
composition.  The  introductions  prefixed  to  the  separate  stories 
include  a  short  biography  of  the  particular  story-teller,  a  bibliog- 
raphy of  his  representative  works,  a  review  of  his  special  literary 
qualities,  and  a  discussion  of  the  circumstances  attending  the 
composition  selected,  together  with  the  points  which  aid  in  its 
interpretation.  Sundry  notes  at  the  end  of  the  volume  helpfully 
explain  certain  difficulties  of  the  text ;  these  notes  would  have 
been  more  directly  helpful,  however,  had  they  been  printed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  pages.  —  T/ie  Outlook. 

10.   Criticise  fully  the  following  account  of  "  floating  " : 

One  of  the  most  picturesque  methods  of  hunting  the  poor  deer 
is  called  "  floating."  The  person,  with  murder  in  his  heart,  chooses 
a  cloudy  night,  seats  himself,  rifle  in  hand,  in  a  canoe,  which  is 
noiselessly  paddled  by  the  guide,  and  explores  the  shore  of  the 
lake  or  the  dark  inlet.  In  the  bow  of  the  boat  is  a  light  in  a 
"  jack,"  the  rays  of  which  are  shielded  from  the  boat  and  its  occu- 
pants. A  deer  comes  down  to  feed  upon  the  lily-pads.  The  boat 
approaches  him.    He  looks  up,  and  stands  a  moment,  terrified  or 


2i6  EXPOSITION 

fascinated  bv  the  bright  flames.  In  that  moment  the  sportsman 
is  supposed  to  shoot  the  deer.  As  an  historical  fact,  his  hand  usu- 
ally shakes,  so  that  he  misses  the  animal,  or  only  wounds  him  ;  and 
the  stag  limps  away  to  die  after  days  of  suffering.  Usually,  how- 
ever, the  hunters  remain  out  all  night,  get  stiff  from  cold  and  the 
cramped  position  in  the  boat,  and,  when  they  return  in  the  morn- 
ing to  camp,  cloud  their  future  existence  by  the  assertion  that 
they  "heard  a  big  buck  "  moving  along  the  shore,  but  the  people 
in  camp  made  so  much  noise  that  he  was  frightened  off.  —  C.  I). 
Warner,  "A-Hunting  of  the  Deer  "  in  "  In  the  Wilderness." 

At  times  we  are  content  merely  to  explain,  but  frequently, 
like  Mr.  Warner  in  the  extract  given  above,  we  color  the 
explanation  in  order  to  make  the  reader  think  as  we  do. 
In  this  way  we  fall  into  a  persuasive  or  argumentative  style 
of  writing,  which  we  shall  study  in  the  next  chapter.    ^ 


•      CHAPTER   XVIII 
ARGUMENT 

"  Truth  is  worth  more  than  victory." 

137.  The  Difference  between  Exposition  and  Argument. 
Some  people  like  to  argue  for  the  sake  of  arguing,  —  there 
is  no  doubt  of  it,  —  and  which  one  of  us  does  not  enjoy 
a  lively  discussion  ?  From  morning  till  night,  at  the  break- 
fast table,  on  the  way  to  school,  in  recitations,  at  recess,  on 
the  athletic  field,  over  our  indoor  work  and  play,  —  on  all 
occasions  we  are  trying  to  make  somebody  else  see  as  we 
see  and  think  as  we  think.  In  many  cases  argument  is 
simple  exposition ;  as  soon  as  we  can  explain  our  meaning 
to  a  friend,  he  agrees  with  us.  Suppose  you  say,  "A  college 
graduate  is  not  an  educated  person."  Your  friend  naturally 
replies  that  boys  and  girls  go  to  college  to  get  an  education. 
But  when  you  explain  that  it  takes  a  lifetime  to  get  what 
you  consider  an  education,  that  a  college  course  merely  goes 
a  step  beyond  the  grammar  school  and  the  high  school  in 
showing  one  how  to  become  educated,  how  to  grow,  your 
friend  will  probably  agree  to  your  first  statement.  Even  if 
he  thinks  you  give  a  broad  meaning  to  the  word  "educa- 
tion," clearly  the  first  thing  for  you  and  him  to  do  is  to 
agree  upon  a  definition  of  that  word.  To  be  sure,  this  agree- 
ment may  leave  nothing  to  discuss,  but  in  the  course  of 
coming  to  the  agreement  you  may  find  a  fair  field  for 
argument. 

217 


2i8  ARGUMENT 

In  writing  expositions  we  try  to  secure : 

1.  Unity. 

2.  Logical  arrangement. 

3.  Illustration  by  example  or  by  comparison. 
In  argumentative  writing, 

1.  The  necessity  of  stating  just  what  we  are  to  prove 
will  aid  us  in  securing  unity. 

2.  The  logical  arrangement  is  of  great  importance. 

3.  The  value  of  our  work  frequently  depends  on  the  skill 
with  which  we  use  illustrations  by  example,  but  we  must  not 
attach  undue  importance  to  a  single  illustration  by  example. 

In  exposition  we  set  forth  one  view  of  a  subject.  In 
argument  our  purpose  is  to  show  that  one  view  is  better 
than  another.    Hence 

4.  We  need  to  be  particularly  careful  about  the  choice  of 
evidence.  In  selecting  evidence  which  is  really  nothing  but 
opinion  we  must  remember,  for  example,  that  one  man's 
opinion  is  of  no  great  value  unless  that  man  is  an  expert  ; 
and  that  the  substantial  agreement  of  several  experts  is 
naturally  considered  to  be  more  valuable  than  the  opinion 
of  any  one  of  them. 

138.  Debates.  The  form  of  argumentation  which  is  of 
most  practical  value  to  young  persons  is  debating.  As  an 
exercise  in  self-control  it  is  as  good  as  football.  The  neces- 
sity of  getting  our  opponent's  point  of  view  is  the  best 
possible  preparation  for  dealing  with  men  and  women ;  and 
if  this  last  advantage  were  the  only  one  to  gain  from  debat- 
ing, it  alone  would  be  worth  all  the  cost.  The  acquirement 
of  this  ability  is  itself  an  education. 

139.  The  Statement  of  the  Question.  In  a  debate  much 
depends  on  the  wording  of  the  question.    In  every  case  the 


THE  STATEMENT  OF  THE   QUESTION  219 

statement  should  be  perfectly  clear,  and  so  framed  that 
no  advantage  shall  be  given  to  either  side.  Suppose,  for 
example,  we  are  to  try  to  determine  whether  freshmen 
should  be  excluded  from  high-school  teams.  We  may  state 
the  proposition  formally  in  this  way  : 

Resolved,  That  freshmen  should  not  be  excluded  from  all  high- 
school  teams. 

To  prevent  confusion,  however,  it  will  be  better  to  avoid 
the  negative  form,  and  say  : 

Resolved,  That  freshmen  should  be  excluded  from  all  high- 
school  teams. 

Then  the  affirmative  side  will  have  something  to  build  up, 
and  the  work  of  the  negative  side  will  be  to  tear  down  this 
structure,  whatever  it  may  be.  The  affirmative  undertakes 
to  prove  something.  All  the  negative  needs  to  do  is  to 
show  that  the  afifiirmative  has  failed  to  prove  what  it  has 
undertaken.  If  the  afifirmative  presents  a  chain  of  argu- 
ments, the  negative  has  merely  to  show  that  one  link  in 
the  chain  will  not  hold.  If,  at  the  close  of  the  debate,  the 
judges  feel  that  the  affirmative  has  said  nothing,  and  that 
the  negative  has  said  nothing,  they  award  the  debate 
to  the  negative. 

In  order  that  the  time  set  for  debate  may  not  be  spent 
in  deciding  what  the  debate  is  to  be  about,  any  doubtful 
term  —  that  is,  any  ambiguous  word  or  expression  —  should 
be  carefully  defined.  If  possible,  the  speakers  should  meet 
and  agree  on  the  meaning  of  terms  beforehand ;  but  if  that 
is  impossible,  they  must  fight  it  out  in  the  debate.  When- 
ever a  speaker  uses  an  ambiguous  term,  he  should  state 
what  he  understands  it  to  mean. 


2  20  ARGUMENT 

140.  The  Finding  of  Material.  As  soon  as  we  know  just 
what  we  are  to  prove,  we  shall  be  ready  to  look  for  mate- 
rial. Aside  from  all  the  aid  we  may  be  fortunate  enough  to 
get  from  friends,  we  shall  need  practice  in  handling  library 
catalogues  and  tables  of  contents.  We  should  know  where 
to  find  and  how  to  use  records  of  public  debates.  We 
should  have  access  to  The  Congressional  Record,  standard 
histories,  periodicals,  and  some  of  the  best  daily  papers. 
Poole's  Index  to  Periodical  Literature  is  invaluable  in  con- 
sulting magazines.  If  we  are  to  have  weight  as  speakers, 
we  must  not  only  quote  recognized  authorities  but  we  must 
be  careful  to  take  references  and  quotations  at  first  hand, 
if  possible,  and  to  quote  them  accurately.  Our  audience 
has  a  right  to  expect  us  to  tell  definitely  the  origin  of  our 
citation.  It  is  not  enough,  for  example,  to  attribute  some- 
thing to  Webster ;  we  should  add  the  name  of  the  speech. 
In  general,  we  are  to  give  information  enough  to  enable 
any  one  to  verify  our  quotations  with  ease.  If,  as  we  take 
notes,  we  jot  down  the  references  to  our  sources,  we  shall 
not  be  embarrassed  afterward  by  wondering  who  our  au- 
thority was. 

141.  The  Brief.  In  preparing  an  argument,  you  need 
something  more  than  a  plan,  or  topical  outline;  you  need 
complete  statements  of  all  the  thoughts  that  are  essential 
to  the  argument.  These  statements  compose  the  brief. 
The  brief  has  three  important  parts  :  (i)  the  introduction, 
(2)  the  brief  proper,  and  (3)  the  conclusion. 

In  the  introdnction  state  clearly  : 

1.  How  the  question  arose. 

2.  What  facts  both  sides  admit. 

3.  What  is  the  exact  point  at  issue. 


THE  BRIEF  22  1 

In  the  brief  proper  show  the  growth  of  the  argument  : 

1.  Separate  the  main  arguments  from  the  subordinate. 

2.  Arrange  the  main  arguments  in  logical  order. 

3.  Group  under  them  the  subordinate  arguments,  and 
see  that  each  subdivision  is  a  reason  for  the  truth  of  the 
division  under  which  it  comes. 

In  the  conclusion,  give  a  concise  summing  up  of  the 
argument. 

Refutation.  Under  the  heading  refutation  we  are  to 
point  out  just  what  arguments  are  to  be  answered.  When 
to  bring  in  the  refutation  depends  upon  the  question.  On 
one  occasion  it  will  seem  best  to  make  it  very  conspicuous 
—  perhaps  to  put  it  first,  so  as  to  remove  opposition  or 
prejudice.  On  another  occasion  it  may  be  introduced  inci- 
dentally from  time  to  time  as  a  matter  of  little  conse- 
quence. Another  time  we  may  not  dare  mention  it  till  we 
have  advanced  most  of  our  arguments  ;  then  we  shall  seek 
with  one  strong  sweep  to  remove  all  obstacles. 

Assertion  and  Proof.  We  must  be  particularly  careful 
to  draw  a  sharp  line  between  assertion  and  proof.  Asser- 
tion is  an  expression  of  opinion  ;  proof  must  be  supported 
by  facts.  Assertions  amount  to  nothing ;  every  bit  of  evi- 
dence, on  the  other  hand,  is  one  round  in  the  ladder  that 
leads  to  the  conclusion. 

Not  only  do  we  need  a  brief  for  each  side  of  the  debate, 
but  we  should  be  as  familiar  with  the  opponent's  ground 
as  we  are  with  our  own  territory,  for  we  are  to  give  and 
take,  to  be  answered  and  to  answer  ;  and  after  the  contest 
begins,  we  have  no  time  for  hunting  up  information. 

The  following  brief  for  the  negative  shows  the  proper 
arranerement  of  material : 


22  2  ARGUMENT 

BRIEF 
The  Housing  of  thk  Poor 

Question  :   Resolved,  That  the  housing  of  the  poor  should  be 
improved  by  municipalities. 

Introduction 

I.  In  many  of  the  larger  cities  the  poorest  inhabitants  live  in 
such  wretched  quarters  that  })ublic  benefactors  have  raised 
the  question  whether  these  conditions  of  life  cannot  be 
improved  by  the  cities. 
11.  Definitions. 

A.  The  "  housing  "  of  the  poor  refers  to  tenements. 

B.  Improved  "by  municipalities"  means  at  the  expense  of 

the  city. 

III.  Both  sides  admit  that 

A.  The  present  tenement-house  system  is  disgraceful. 

B.  The  necessity  for  improvement  is  urgent. 

IV.  The  question,  then,  is  whether  improvements  should  be  made 

by  municipalities.    There  are  three  issues. 

A.  Is  the  plan  wise  in  theory? 

B.  Does  it  work? 

C.  Is  there  no  better  plan? 

Brief  Proper 

I.  Municipal  housing  is  not  wise  in  theory. 

A.  It  is  charity  of  a  wrong  kind. 

I.  It  weakens  self-dependence. 

B.  It  is  unjust  to  the  taxpayer. 

I.  The  thrifty  furnish  homes  for  the  improvident. 
II.  Municipal  housing  does  not  work  in  practice. 

A.  The  Glasgov/  experiments  helped  only  a  few  families. 

B.  Experiments  in  Naples  were  unsatisfactory.^ 

C.  Experiments  in  I,ondon  failed.^ 

1  Nation.  LII,  134.  2  Forinightly  Review,  XXXVIII,  425  (October,  1882). 


SPECIMEN   BRIEF  223 

III.  There  are  better  ways  of  solving  the  problem. 

A.  Private  citizens  are  keeping  old  buildings  in  good  repair. 

1.  In  London.^ 

2.  In  Boston. 

3.  In  New  York. 

B.  Private  citizens  are  building  model  tenements. 

1.  In  London. 

2.  In  Brooklyn. 

C.  Cooperative  associations  are  building  cottages  in  suburbs. 
I.  In  Philadelphia. 

Conclusion 

Because  municipal  housing  is  not  wise  in  theory,  because  it 
does  not  work  in^  practice,  and  because  there  are  better  ways  of 
solving  the  proble'pi,  the  housing  of  the  poor  should  not  be  im- 
proved by  municipalities. 

142.  The  Speaking.  After  securing  an  orderly  arrange- 
ment of  his  material,  the  debater  should  talk  over  the  whole 
subject  by  himself  or  to  a  friend  so  many  times  that  there 
shall  be  no  hesitation  for  words  when  he  appears  in  public. 
He  is  not  to  commit  a  speech  to  memory,  but  rather  to 
deliver  so  many  speeches  before  the  debate  that  he  can 
speak  readily  on  any  phase  of  the  question.  As  soon  as 
his  turn  comes  he  will  begin,  eager  to  make  the  most  of  the 
time  allowed  him,  as  his  object  is  to  speak  so  earnestly 
and  in  such  a  straightforward  way  that  he  shall  at  once 
win  the  attention  of  his  hearers  and  hold  it  steadily  till  at 
the  end  he  has  accomphshed  his  purp<^  —  till  he  has 
compelled  them  to  agree  with  him. 

If  we  would  carry  our  point,  it  may  be  a  good  plan  to 
appear  not  to  argue.  As  long  as  the  listener  takes  our  con- 
versation to  be  merely  explanation,  he  will  follow.    If  we 

1  Definite  references  should  accompany  each  of  these  subdivisions. 


2  24  ARGUMENT 

can  make  the  hearer  think  he  is  drawing  his  own  conclu- 
sions, or  if  we  can  join  him  in  working  out  the  solution  of 
the  problem,  we  are  much  more  likely  to  convince  him  than 
we  should  be  by  giving  him  the  impression  that  we  are 
doing  all  his  thinking  for  him. 

In  Webster's  closing  paragraph  of  his  "Defense  of  the 
Kennistons  "  he  does  not  tell  the  jury  what  they  ought  to 
do,  what  he  expects  them  to  do,  or  what  all  right-thinking 
men  would  do  ;  he  appeals  to  them  as  men  who  are  to  de- 
cide for  themselves : 

If  the  jury  are  satisfied  that  there  is  the  highest  improbability 
that  these  persons  could  have  had  any  previous  knowledge  of 
Goodridge,  or  been  concerned  in  any  previous  concert  to  rob 
him  ;  if  their  conduct  that  evening  and  the  next  day  was  marked 
by  no  circumstances  of  suspicion ;  if  from  that  moment  until 
their  arrest  nothing  appeared  against  them  ;  if  they  neither  passed 
money,  nor  are  found  to  have  had  money ;  if  the  manner  of  the 
search  of  their  house,  and  the  circumstances  attending  it,  excite 
strong  suspicions  of  unfair  and  fraudulent  practices  ;  if,  in  the  hour 
of  their  utmost  peril,  no  promises  of  safety  could  draw  from  the 
defendants  any  confession  affecting  themselves  or  others,  it  will 
be  for  the  jury  to  say  whether  they  can  pronounce  them  guilty. 

Probably  the  wisest  of  us  can  learn  something  from 
Franklin's  method  of  expressing  himself : 

I  .  .  .  [retained]  the  habit  of  expressing  myself  in  terms  of 
modest  diffidence ;  never  using,  when  I  advanced  anything  that 
may  possibly  be  disputed,  the  words  certainly,  tmdoubtedly,  or  any 
others  that  give  the  air  of  positiveness  to  an  opinion  ;  but  rather 
say,  I  conceive  or  apprehend  a  thing  to  be  so  and  so  ;  it  appears 
to  me,  or  /  shot/Id  think  it  so  and  so,  for  such  and  such  reasons ; 
or  I  imagine  it  to  be  so  ;  or  //  is  so,  if  I  am  not  mistaken.  This 
habit,  I  believe,  has  been  of  great  advantage  to  me  when  I  have 
had  occasion  to  inculcate  my  opinions,  and  persuade  men  into 


THE  SPEAKING  225 

measures  that  I  have  been  from  time  to  time  engaged  in  promot- 
ing ;  and,  as  the  chief  ends  of  conversation  are  to  inform  or  to  be 
informed,  to  please  or  to  persuade,  1  wish  well-meaning,  sensible 
men  would  not  lessen  their  power  of  doing  good  by  a  positive,  as- 
suming manner,  that  seldom  fails  to  disgust,  tends  to  create  oppo- 
sition, and  to  defeat  every  one  of  those  purposes  for  which  speech 
was  given  us,  to  wit,  giving  or  receiving  information  or  pleasure. 
For,  if  you  would  inform,  a  positive  and  dogmatical  manner  in 
advancing  your  sentiments  may  provoke  contradiction  and  pre- 
vent a  candid  attention.  If  you  wish  information  and  improve- 
ment from  the  knowledge  of  others,  and  yet  at  the  same  time 
express  yourself  as  firmly  fixed  in  your  present  opinions,  modest, 
sensible  men,  who  do  not  love  disputation,  will  probably  leave 
you  undisturbed  iil  the  possession  of  your  error.  And  by  such  a 
manner,  you  can  seldom  hope  to  recommend  yourself  in  pleas- 
ing your  hearers,  or  to  persuade  those  whose  concurrence  you 
desire.  — "Autobiography." 

EXERCISES 

1.  The  list  of  propositions  given  below  may  help  you 
choose  a  subject  for  an  argument.  Pick  out  one  on  which 
you  can  be  prepared  to  speak  with  authority,  and  make 
a  brief. 

2.  After  profiting  by  whatever  suggestions  come  from 
the  teacher  and  the  class  about  the  statement  of  the  propo- 
sition, the  order  of  the  divisions  of  the  brief,  etc.,  write 
your  argument. 

3.  After  careful  preparation,  with  the  brief  well  fixed  in 
your  mind,  give  your  argument  to  the  class  orally. 

You  should  now  be  in  a  position  to  prepare  for  a  debate. 
At  first  you  should  choose  a  subject  on  which  you  can  argue 
largely  from  observation  and  experience ;  afterward  you  may 
rely  more  on  material  that  you  get  from  books  and  magazines. 


2  26  ARGUMENT 

143.  Subjects  for  Debates.  The  following  subjects  may 
suggest  others  that  will  prove  more  satisfactory  than  many 
on  this  list  : 

1.  A  four  years'   high-school   course   is  better  than  a  three 
years'  course. 

2.  Canada  should  be  annexed  to  the  United  States. 

3.  The is  a  better  bicycle  than  the . 

4.  Interscholastic    football    promotes    the    best    interests    of 
schools. 

5.  The  United  States  should  build  a  larger  navy. 

6.  The    standing    arniy    of    the    United    States    should    be 
increased. 

7.  The    coast    defenses    of    the    United    States    should    be 
strengthened. 

8.  Private  citizens  should  feed  tramps. 

9.  Asphalt  is  the  best  kind  of  paving  for Street. 

10.  Strikes  help  the  cause  of  labor. 

11.  A  trust  is  necessarily  a  benefit. 

12.  The  treatment  of  Shy  lock  was  unjust. 

13.  High-school  pupils  should  read  the  newspapers, 

14.  The  — —  is  a  better  automobile  than  the . 

15.  Pupils  of  high-school  age  should  receive  training  in  debating. 

16.  The  public  library  should  be  open  on  Sunday. 

17.  Manual  training  should  be  taught  in  all  high  schools. 

18.  Freshmen  should  be  excluded  from  all  high-school  teams. 

19.  Every  high  school  should  give  instruction  in  military  tactics. 

20.  Monday  is  a  more  suitable  day  than  Saturday  for  the  weekly 
school  holiday. 

144.  The  Management  of  a  Debate.^  In  undertaking  a 
debate  the  members  of  the  class  or  club  should  under- 
stand that  one  of  the  first  objects  is  to  encourage  a  large 
number  of  speakers  to  say  something  to  the  point.    There 

1  See  also  "  Rules  of  Proceeding  and  Debate  in  Deliberative  Assenablies,"  by 
Luther  S.  Gushing.     New  edition.     Philadelphia,  Pt)rter  &  Coates. 


SUBJECTS  FOR   DEBATES  227 

is  always  danger  that  three  or  four  of  the  best  speakers 
will  get  the  lion's  share  of  the  advantages.  To  prevent  this 
result  every  encouragement  should  be  given  to  the  beginner 
who  finds  it  almost  impossible  to  say  anything.  It  may  be 
that  the  fluent  speaker,  who  astonishes  his  timid  hearers 
into  silence,  decorates  himself  with  borrowed  finery  ;  and 
it  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  one  good  argument, 
the  result  of  an  honest  piece  of  thinking,  is  worth  dozens 
of  other  people's  thoughts. 

An  exercise  of  this  sort  should  be  democratic.  If  the 
making  of  arrangements  is  left  to  a  committee  of  three, 
appointed  by  the  teacher  or  chosen  by  the  class,  all  should 
recognize  the  importance  of  doing  cheerfully  whatever  this 
committee  recommends.  Even  if  one  has  to  take  the  side 
he  dislikes,  he  must  do  his  best  with  it  in  order  (i)  to  sup- 
port the  committee  in  its  attempt  to  have  the  machinery 
of  the  debate  run  smoothly,  and  (2)  to  call  attention  to  all 
the  good  points  on  that  side  so  that  the  judges  may  be 
enabled  to  get  at  the  facts. 

Preparation.  Ample  time  must  be  given  for  preparation. 
There  should  be  at  least  two  weeks'  notice;  and  during 
the  fortnight  every  one  should  spend  as  much  as  possible 
of  his  spare  time  in  thinking  and  reading  about  the  sub- 
ject. This  subject  should  be  one  of  general  interest.  It 
is  wise  at  first  to  avoid  questions  that  are  too  intricate  for 
most  of  our  statesmen,  and,  if  practicable,  to  choose  one 
that  gives  the  pupil  a  chance  to  supplement  his  reading  by 
drawing  from  his  own  experience.  If,  for  example,  he  is  to 
argue  on  the  advisability  of  feeding  tramps,  in  addition 
to  the  indefinite  amount  of  reading  he  will  find  available, 
he  may  be  able  to  give  point  and  interest  to  his  speaking 


2  28  ARGUMENT 

by  telling  of  what  he  has  seen  in  his  father's  dooryard.  He 
who  would  bring  others  to  his  way  of  thinking  must  show 
them  that  he  has  been  working  out  the  subject  for  himself 
and  knows  what  he  is  talking  about. 

Principal  Speakers  and  Substitutes.  The  committee  of 
arrangements  will  probably  find  that  as  a  rule  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  appoint  two  or  three  principal  speakers  on  each 
side  of  the  question,  and  one  substitute  on  each  side.  If 
the  substitutes  are  not  called  upon,  their  careful  prepara- 
tion will  qualify  them  to  strengthen  the  debate  from  the 
floor.  The  principal  speakers  must  not  be  given  too  much 
time,  nor  are  they  to  be  allowed  any  extension  of  the  time 
allotted.  As  soon  as  they  have  prepared  the  way  for  a 
general  discussion,  the  chairman  should  throw  the  debate 
open  to  all.  Then  the  friends  of  the  principal  speakers 
may  fill  in  the  outlines  presented  by  their  leaders. 

Division  of  Work  among  Speakers.  Considerable  care 
should  be  exercised  in  the  division  of  the  work  among  the 
leaders,  and  each  of  them  should  attend  to  the  portion  as- 
signed him.  Every  one  should  sum  up  his  own  speech,  and 
the  closing  speakers  need  to  be  especially  clever  in  singling 
out  the  main  points  that  have  been  proved  and  in  sending 
them  home  to  the  audience  in  a  clear,  concise,  emphatic 
summary. 

If,  as  frequently  happens,  there  are  four  leaders,  the 
work  may  be  divided  in  this  way  : 

I.  The  first  speaker  on  the  afifirmative  gives  the  outline  of 
the  entire  afifirmative  case,  shows  what  he  and  his  associates 
are  to  prove,  and  presents  his  own  arguments.  Incidentally 
he  may  do  something  to  destroy  the  force  of  arguments 
which  may  be  brought  forward  by  the  other  side. 


THE   MANAGEMENT  OF  A  DEBATE  229 

2.  The  first  speaker  on  the  negative  comes  next.  He 
shows  what  he  and  his  colleague  are  to  prove,  and  pre- 
sents his  part  of  the  proof.  He  has  the  advantage  of  know- 
ing what  has  been  said  by  the  opening  speaker,  and  does 
what  he  can  to  weaken  those  arguments.  He  may,  if  he 
sees  fit,  anticipate  some  of  the  points  likely  to  be  made  by 
the  second  speaker  on  the  affirmative. 

3.  The  second  affirmative  speaker  does  the  work  out- 
lined by  his  colleague  and  answers  the  first  negative 
speaker.  He  then  attacks  arguments  that  may  be  made 
by  the  second  speaker  on  the  negative  and  sums  up  the 
case  for  the  affirmative. 

4.  The  second  negative  speaker  finishes  the  defensive 
work  begun  by  his  colleague  and  does  his  best  to  refute 
the  arguments  of  the  affirmative.  He  then  sums  up  the 
case  for  the  negative. 

Then  comes  the  debating  from  the  floor.  In  order  to 
give  every  one  an  opportunity  to  say  something,  these 
speeches  must  be  very  brief.  If  the  volunteers  do  not 
use  all  the  time  set  apart  for  them,  the  leaders  may  be 
allowed  to  speak  again. 

After  the  closing  of  the  general  debate  one  representa- 
tive from  each  side  is  entitled  to  make  a  rebuttal  speech. 
In  the  rebuttal  speeches  no  new  arguments  or  evidence 
can  be  introduced  except  for  the  purpose  of  answering  an 
opponent  or  of  making  clearer  or  more  emphatic  some 
argument  already  advanced  by  the  speaker's  side.  The 
representative  of  the  affirmative  comes  last.  As  the  burden 
of  proof  rests  upon  his  side,  he  should  have  the  last  word. 

Note.  In  many  debating  cluks  the  camp  .system  works  well.  The 
members  elect  by  ballot  from  their  number  a  i:)resident  and  two  leaders. 


230  ARGUMENT 

These  leaders  go  ahead  just  as  persons  do  who  are  selected  to  choose 
sides  for  a  spelling  match.  Having  drawn  lots  for  the  first  choice,  they 
pick  out  the  debaters  alternately  till  every  member  is  in  one  camp  or 
the  other.  Then  each  leader  does  all  he  can  to  enable  his  camp  to 
win.  He  sees  that  the  work  is  carefully  planned,  and  frequently  makes 
the  opening  or  the  closing  speech.  One  way  of  bringing  good  de- 
baters into  a  club  is  to  allow  each  leader  to  place  in  his  camp  any 
new  member  he  can  secure. 

Judges.  Three  judges  may  be  appointed  to  determine 
which  side  has  been  the  more  successful  in  convincing:  im- 
partial  listeners.  A  teacher,  or  some  other  competent  person 
whose  suggestions  will  be  carefully  followed,  should  serve  as 
critic  of  the  substance  and  the  style  of  presentation,  includ- 
ing, of  co.urse,  matters  of  grammar  and  pronunciation. 


APPENDIX 


THE  MUSICAL  READING  OF  VERSE 

1.  Common  Feet.  In  the  following  stanza  ("The  Lady 
of  the  Lake,"  I)  the  syllables  that  we  naturally  accent  iii 
reading"  have  been  printed  in  italics: 

The  sAi!^  at  eve  had  drunk  \\\%  fill, 
Where  danced  the  moon  on  J/t'nan's  ;-///, 
And  deep  his  ;//?V/night  lair  had  made 
In  lone  Glen«;'/ney's  haztX  shade. 

Now  a  single  attempt  will  show  the  absurdity  of  empha- 
sizing the  unaccented  syllables.    That  would  give  us 

The  stag  at  eve  had  drunk  his  fill, 
Where  danced  the  moon  on  M.ona?i''s  rill. 

Nobody  would  read  in  this  way.  Why,  then,  should  any- 
body make  a  helter-skelter  combination  of  the  right  and 
the  wrong  way  1  A  good  ear  and  a  little  common  sense  will 
prevent  such  a  blunder. 

Letting  \j  stand  for  an  unaccented  syllable  and  —  for 
an  accented  syllable,  we  may  indicate  the  accent  of  these 
lines  thus  : 

w I   v^ I   \y I   \^ 

\j I   w I   \y I   \j 

In  this  stanza  the  poet  accents  every  second  syllable.  We 
say  that  such  verse  consists  of  four  feet,  and  that  the  regu- 
lar foot  is  composed  of  a  short  and  a  long  syllable,  w_. 

231 


232  THE  MUSICAL  READINC;  OF  VERSE 

In  "Julius  Caesar"  we  have 

Ciood  genjtlemen,  1  look  fresh  I  and  merlrily. 


Let  not 


our  looks  I  put  on  I  our  ])urlposes  ; 


But  bear  I  it  as  I  our  Ro 


man  acltors  do. 


Each  verse  consists  of  five  feet,  and  the  regular  foot  has 
two  syllables,  a  short  and  a  long. 

In 

Tell  me  I  not  in  !  moin-nful  I  numbers 

^1- "^1     *^l    ^ 

Life  is  I  but  an  I  empty  I  dream, 

\y\    —       <y    \     v_/  I        , 

the  accented  syllable  comes  before  the  unaccented  sylla- 
ble, _w. 

In 

From  the  si)ijrits  on  earth  I  that  adore, 

\y  \y        \  ^j       ^y         \     K^       ^    — 

From  the  souls  I  that  entreat  I  and  implore 

v.^  Ky  Iw'w'      l*^        ^      

In  the  ferlvor  and   paslsion  of  prayer, 

two  unaccented   syllables  come  before   the  syllable   that 
takes  the  accent,  ^^y 


And  in 


This  is  the  I  forest  pri 

w       \^      I    V-/        w 

hemlocks, 
\y 

we  recognize  the  ww_  inverted,  _wv^ 


meval.     The  I  murmuring  I  pines  and  the 


COMMON   FEET  233 

2.  Names  of  Feet.  The  following  names  have  been 
given  these  feet  :  ^_  iambus  ;  _w  trochee  ;  ^\j^anapcst  ; 
—  ^  ^dactyl.  But  for  our  purposes  the  names  are  of  little 
importance.  What  we  need  to  do  is  to  strike  the  accented 
syllables  hard,  and  to  pass  lightly  over  syllables  that  are  un- 
accented. This  will  not  be  difficult  if  we  remember  that  the 
poet  is  expected  to  retain  the  accent  that  belongs  to  a  word. 
In  the  case  of  old  writers,  such  as  Shakspere  and  Milton, 
we  sometimes  find  words  with  an  accent  long  since  changed. 

3.  Variations.  Although  most  poems  have  one  prevail- 
ing meter,  the  poet  finds  it  desirable  to  change  his  meter 
from  time  to  time  as  the  thought  changes.  This  substitu- 
tion of  feet,  made  of  course  in  accordance  with  certain  rules, 
frequently  gives  the  verse  an  added  charm. 

In  "  The  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  II,  41,  we  find,  _^  for  ^—  : 

The  antlered  monarch  of  the  waste 
Sprung  from  the  heathery  couch  in  haste; 
^j 

in  lines  55  and  73, for  ^_  : 

Rock,  glen,  and  cavern  paid  them  back 

On  the  lone  wckxI  and  mighty  hill. 

We  welcome  an  extra  .syllable  at  the  end  of  a  line,  as  in 
the  third  line  below  : 

This  was  I  the  no  [  blest  Ro  j  man  of  [them  all. 

All  the  I  conspirlators,  j  save  onlly  he, 

w|v^     \^ .    \    \j      \\j   

Did  that    they  did  [  in   envy  of  I  great  Cfelsar  ; 


234        thp:  musical  reading  of  verse 

and  the  substitution  of for  v^_  : 

Blow,   blow,  I  thou  win  Iter  wind, 

Thou  art  not  so  unkind 
As  man's  ingratitude. 


We  frequently  find  a  line  like  this  : 


Harp  of  j  the  North  !  j  that  moul 


dering  long  I  hast  hung, 


in  which  the  fourth  foot  has  three  syllables.  The  two  very 
short  syllables  have  the  time  that  would  naturally  be  given 
to  one  unaccented  or  short  syllable:   ^^_  =  w  — 

As  you  read  aloud,  notice  the  effect  of  the  different 
kinds  of  meter,  —  one  may  be  restful,  another  stirring, 
another  stately, — and  the  variations. 

4.  Rests.  There  are  rests  in  verse  just  as  there  are  in 
music.   In  the  following  line  one  must  stop  after  "primeval  "  : 

This  is  the   forest   primeval.    The  laiurmuring   pines  and   the 
hemlocks. 
In 

On  to  their  morning's  rural  work  they  haste. 
Among  sweet  dews  and  flowers,  A  where  any  row 
Of  fruit-trees,  over-woody,  reached  too  far, 

the  caret  indicates  the  natural  place  for  pausing.  If,  as  in 
music,  the  rest  takes  the  place  of  a  syllable,  it  may  be 
marked  thus  : 

A  Break,  1  A  break,  [  A  break. 

On  thy  cold  I  gray  stones,  I  O  sea  ! 

And  I  would  that  my  tongue  could  utter 
The  thoughts  that  arise  in  me. 


KINDS  OF  VERSE  235 

5.  Kinds  of  Verse.  If  a  verse  has  two  feet,  it  is  called 
dimeter ;  if  three,  trimeter ;  if  four,  tetrameter ;  if  five, 
pentameter ;  if  six,  hexameter. 

Shakspere's  line  is  iambic  pentameter  {iambic  is  the 
adjective  from  iambus),  and  if  you  are  interested  you  will 
have  no  difficulty  in  finding  many  other  poems  written  in 
this  meter.  Nor  will  you  need  look  far  for  examples  of 
trochaic  tetrameter  and  dactylic  hexameter.  But  you  must 
expect  great  variety,  —  even  in  a  single  poem,  —  and  you 
must  learn  to  adapt  yourself  to  the  changes. 

6.  Scansion.    Whether  you  do  it  orally  or  on  paper,  this 

measuring  of  the  lines  is  called  scansion.    You  should  do 

enough  scanning  to  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 

method. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Read  metrically  all  the  poetry  in  this  book. 

2.  Separate  into  feet  two  lines  of  every  kind  of  meter 
you  find. 

3.  Copy  two  verses  of  each  of  the  following  kinds : 
(i)  iambic  pentameter;  (2)  trochaic  tetrameter;  (3)  dac- 
tylic hexameter. 

4.  Write  two  verses  of  each  of  the  kinds  mentioned  in 
Exercise  3. 

5.  Write  a  few  verses  on  some  subject  with  which  you 
are  thoroughly  familiar.  Before  choosing  your  subject,  look 
over  the  table  of  contents  of  one  of  your  favorite  volumes 
of  poems. 

7.  Rhythm.  In  all  your  reading  of  poetry  you  should 
pay  attention  to  time,  as  you  do  in  music  and  dancing. 
The  voice  should  show  that  your  ear  detects  the  regular 
recurrence   of    accented    syllables   that    gives   the  musical 


236  THE   MUSICAL  READING  OF  VERSE 

effect  we  call  rhythm.  This  measured  motion  of  the  verse 
is  as  natural  as  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  sea.  One  may  go 
so  far  as  to  say  that  a  poem  is  not  really  a  poem  until  it 
is  completed  by  the  sympathetic  rendering  of  the  human 
voice. 

EXERCISE 

Write  out  the  difference  between  prose  and  poetry  as 
clearly  as  you  can.  Use  as  illustrations  a  few  lines  that 
are  really  poetic. 


INDEX 


The  references  are  to  pages. 


Abbreviations,  in  letter  writing,  74; 
punctuation  of,  38. 

Abstract  neuns,  100. 

Accent,  in  reading,  4,  231 ;  in  spell- 
ing, 56. 

Action,  187. 

Active  voice  of  a  verb,  109;  use  of, 
to  give  life,  138. 

Address  of  a  letter,  66,  67. 

Adjective,  98;  or  adverb,  123;  modi- 
fiers, 126-128;   this  'AwA  that,  122. 

Adverb,  99.    See  Adjective. 

Aldrich,  T.  B.,  "  Quite  So,"  185. 

Almost.,  most,  123. 

Analysis,  128. 

Antecedent  of  pronouns,  105. 

Apostrophe,  mark  of  punctuation, 
50,103,107;  figure  of  speech, 163. 

Appositives,  46,  102. 

Argument, 217-230;  exposition  and, 
217;  evidence,  218.   See  Debates. 

.\rticles,  122. 

As,  as  if,  like,  126. 

"Autobiography,"  P'ranklin,  224. 

"Average  Massachusetts  Grammar 
School,  An,"  Charles  W.  Eliot, 
209. 

Baby's  First  Shoes,  pupil's  theme, 

30. 
Bird  Study,  Timely  Suggestions  on, 

pupil's  theme,  93. 


Book  review,  specimen,  215. 
Books    that    suggest    subjects    for 

writing,  9. 
Briefs.    See  Debates. 
Brooks,    Phillips,    letter    to   his 

niece,  79. 
Browning,    "Incident     of     the 

French  Camp,"  184. 
BuNYAN,  "The  Pilgrim's  Progress," 

1.53- 
Burroughs,  John,  description  of 
the  walk  of  a  crow,  193;   In  the 
Mountains,  32 ;   Our   Most   Pre- 
cious Resources,  92. 

Capitals,  38,  60,  7c. 

Case,  102;  nominative,  102;  ob- 
jective, 102;  possessive,  102;  of 
pronoun,  102,  107. 

Clause,  126;  adjective,  adverbial, 
and  noun,  127;  conditional,  116; 
dependent  and  independent,  127; 
subordinate  (same  as  dependent). 

Climax,  189,  210. 

Coherence,  in  the  paragraph,  87; 
in  the  sentence,  135;  in  the  whole 
composition,  1 6STT88V 208. 

Collective  nouns,  100,  122. 

Coli.yer,  Rokert,  on  simple 
words,  152. 

Colon,  41,  42,  68. 

Comma,  46-48,  68,  70. 


237 


2  38 


INDEX 


Compositions:  conclusion,  174; 
introduction,  20  (Note), 173;  oral 
and  written,  7;  whole,  27-35. 

Conjugation  of  verbs,  107-119. 

Conjunctions,  99,  124;  coordinate 
and  subordinate,  125. 

Connectives,  87. 

Crawford,  F.  Marion,  "Zoroas- 
ter," 117,  199. 

Criticism,  4,  5  ;  96  (Note),  137;  ex- 
aminer's, 23;  key  to  examiner's,  25. 


Figurative  words,  158-163. 
Figures  of  speech.    See  Figurative 

Words. 
Fitzgerald,  Edward,  letter,  80. 
Floating,  C.  D.  Warner,  215. 
Force,    152-166;     in    story-telling, 

188. 
Franklin,  "  Autobiography,"  224 ; 

P^anklin's  Famous  Toast,  178. 
Franklin   Park,   In,  pupir.s  theme, 


Dash,  42,  49. 

Daylight,  The  Lingering,  Haw- 
thorne, 89. 

Debates,  218-230;  briefs  for,  220- 
223;  subjects  for,  226. 

Declension  of  nouns,  100. 

"Defense  of  the  Kennistons,"  Web- 
ster, 224. 

Description,  192-205;  by  effect, 
199;  by  suggestion,  198;  details 
and  plan,  196,  202;  directions 
for  Writing,  202;  reproduction  of 
sensations,  199. 

Dictionaries,  147,  148. 

Eliot,   Charles  William,   "An 

Average  Massachusetts  Grammar 

School,"  209. 
Emphasis,  in  the  paragraph,  91,  93; 

in  the  whole  composition,  169. 
"Enoch  Arden,"  Tennyson,  197. 
Exposition,  206-216;  directions  for 

writing,  213. 

Father's   Friend,  My,   an  incident, 

181. 
Fields,  J.  T.,  Thackeray  and  the 

Oyster,  180. 


Gender,  104. 

Genitive.    See  Possessive  Case. 
Gerund,  112. 

Grammar.  See  chapter  on  The 
Correct  Sentence,  98. 

Hamilton,  Gail,  letter,  82. 

Hawthorne,  description  of  a 
room,  194;  The  Lingering  Day- 
light, 89. 

Hazlitt,  "  On  the  Conduct  of 
Life,"  35. 

Heading.    See  Letter  writing. 

How  I  killed  a  Bear,  C.  D.  Warner, 
183. 

Hyphen,  21,  52. 

"Idyl    of    the     Honey-Bee,    An," 

Burroughs,  193. 
Imperative  mood,  109,  110. 
In  the  Mountains,  Burroughs,  32. 
Incident,  the,  177-186;   and  short 

story  contrasted,  187;  "Incident 

of  the  French  Camp,"  Browning, 

184. 
Indented  paragraphs,  22,  23. 
Indicative  mood,  109. 
Infinitive,  subject  of  an,  103. 


INDEX 


239 


Infinitives,  no. 
Interjection,  99. 
Interrogation  point,  40. 
Intransitive  verbs,  108,  109. 
Irving,   "The   Legend   of   Sleepy 
Hollow,"  195;  ''Tlie  Voyage,"  28. 

Key  to  examiner's  criticisms,  25. 
Kipling,  RuDYARD,"Rikki-Tikki," 
139  ;  "  The  Spring  Running,"  201. 


Narration,  177-191. 

Nominative  case,  102. 

Notebook  work,  44  (footnote   i); 

96-97  (Note). 
Nouns,  98-105;    kinds  of,  100,  112, 

122. 
Novel   and  short  story  compared, 

187. 
Number  of  nouns,   100;    of  verbs, 

108,  118. 


Lamb's  Salt  Dips,  an  incident,  179. 

"Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  The," 
Irving.  195. 

Letter  writing,  64-86  ;  address,  67  ; 
body  of  the  letter,  68;  business 
letters,  74-77;  complimentary 
close,  69,  70;  conclusion,  69; 
date  and  address,  47,  48;  direc- 
tion of  envelope,  72;  folding  of 
letter,  71;  formal^jSz;-  letters  of 
friendship,  77-82;  heading,  66; 
informal,  68;  invitations,  84; 
notes,  formal  and  informal,  84, 
85;  paper,  65,71;  salutation,  67; 
signature,  70;  success  in,  65  ;  sug- 
gestions, 74;  value  of,  64. 

"Life  of  Samuel  Johnson,"  Ma- 
caulay,  165. 

Lincoln,  letter  from,  81;  para- 
graph on,  212. 

Macaul.ay,  "Life  of  Samuel  John- 
son," 165. 

Manuscript,  heading  and  margin, 
19,  20,  22,  23. 

Metaphors,  158. 

Meter,  233. 

Metonomy,  162. 

Mood  or  mode,  108,  109. 


Object  and  modifiers,  128. 

Objective  case,  102. 

Old  Friend,  An,  pupil's  theme,  30. 

"On  the  Conduct  of  Life,"  35. 

Only,  136. 

Oral  composition,  i,  2,  7. 

Our  Language,  Scott,  88. 

Paragraph,  the,  21,  22;  coherence 
of,  87-90;  connected  paragraphs, 
32;  details  grouped  in,  t,3^  87; 
emphasis  in, 91-97;  indenting  of, 
22,  23;  independent,  27;  length 
of,  27;  in  letter  writing,  69;  plan 
of,  28;    unity  of,  27,  87. 

Participles,  no,  in;  past,  108, 
109,  III;  perfect,  iii;  present, 
III;   relation  to  modifiers,  136. 

Parts  of  speech,  98-128;  flexibility 
of,  99. 

Passive  voice,  109,  138. 

Period,  38,  39. 

Person  of  verbs,  108,  118. 

Personification,  capitals  in,  61. 

Phrase,  conjunctive,  87;  kinds  and 
uses,  126;  modifying,  136;  noun, 
adjective,  adverbial,  128. 

"  Pilgrim's  Progress,  The,"  Bun- 
yan,  153. 


•240 


INDEX 


Plan,  of  the  paragraph,  28;  of  the 
short  composition,  32,  J2<  "f 
longer  compositions,  171,  196, 
207,  20S. 

Plot  of  a  story,  187. 

Plural,  formation  of,  57;  of  com- 
pound words,  loi;  of  foreign 
nouns,  loi;  of  figures  and  let- 
ters, 51;  of  groups  of  nouns, 
103;  of  exceptional  nouns,  100; 
of  proper  names,  loi ;  posses- 
sive, 103. 

Point  of  view,  168,  171,  195. 

Possessive  case,  103;  with  gerund, 
112. 

Predicate.    See   Subject. 

Predicate  adjective,  128. 

Predicate  nominative,  102. 

Prepositions,  99,  123-124. 

Principal  parts,  108. 

Pronoun,  ambiguity,  106;  anteced- 
ent, 105,  136;  case,  102,  107, 
112;  demonstrative,  as  a  link,  87, 
88;  emphatic,  reflexive,  107; 
modified  by  participle,  136;  pre- 
ceding gerunds,  112;  possessive, 
endings  of,  107;  relative,  107;  in 
-se//,  107. 

Punctuation,  36-52  ;  in  letter  writ- 
ing, 68,  70,  72. 

"  Quite  So,"  T.  B.  Aldrich,  185. 

Quotation,  direct,  42,  51. 

Quotation  marks,5 1 ;  of  paragraphs, 
51;  within  a  quotation,  51;  of 
titles  of  books  or  papers,  51. 

Reading,  aloud,  3,  4;  as  introduc- 
tion to  life,  142;  of  reputaljle 
writers,  147;   of  verse,  231-236. 


Reflexive  pronoun,  107. 
Relative  pronoun,  107. 
Resources,    Our     Most    Precious, 

Burroughs,  92. 
Rests  in  reading  verse,  234. 
Rhythm,  235. 

"  Rikki-Tikki,"  Kipling,  139. 
"  Rob  Roy,"  Scott,  194. 
RusKiN,  Sunset  Colors,  143. 

Scott,  "Rob  Roy,"  194;  "Ivan- 
hoe,"  88 

Secretary's  report,  17. 

Semicolon,  41,  42,  44,  45. 

Sentence,  the,  36;  coherence  in, 
13s;  complex,  37,  128,  131,  135; 
compound,  36,  45,  128,  131,  135; 
construction  uniform  in,  133;  cor- 
rect, 98-130;  three  forms  of,  36; 
life  in,  138;  long  or  short,  134; 
short  preferred,  39;  simple,  36, 
I3i>  13s;  smoothness  in,  141; 
unity  in,  131,  135. 

S//17//  and  7£i/7/,  11 3-1 17;  condi- 
tional clauses,  116;  indirect  dis- 
course, 1 16. 

Should,  115,  116. 

Similes,  158. 

Spelling,  rules  for,  56-57. 

"  Spring  Running,  The,"  Kipling, 
200. 

Stevenson,  Robert  Louis, 
"Treasure  Island,"  200;  "  Vai- 
lima  Letters,"  78,  165. 

Story,  the  short,  187,  188. 

Style,  3,  7. 

Subject  and  predicate,  23,  24,  36, 
37;  agreement  with  verb,  118; 
and  modifiers,  128;  of  an  infini- 
tive, 103. 


INDEX 


241 


Subjects,  based  on  experience,  8, 24 ; 

the  choice  of,  8,  96  (Note),  167; 

distinguished    from    titles,    20; 

divisions    of,    21,    140;     limited, 

12-16,   140,   193,  207;    treatment 

of  any,  140. 
Subjunctive  mood,  109,  no. 
Subordinate       conjunctions       and 

clauses,  125. 
Sunset  Colors,  Ruskin,  143. 
Syllabication,  21,   52;    in   spelling, 

56-58. 

Tennyson,  "Enoch  Arden,"  197. 

Tense,  112,  113,  119,  120. 

Thackeray  and  the  Oyster,  J.  T. 
Fields,  180. 

Theme,  44  (footnote  i). 

Title,  19;  capitals  in,  61. 

Toast,  Franklin's  Famous,  178. 

Topic  sentence,  34;  in  exposition, 
207. 

Topics,  27;  choice  of,  17^;  in  de- 
veloping a  subject,  140;  in  sepa- 
rate paragraphs,  27,  140;  order 
for  emphasis,  170, 175;  separated 
by  space  and  time,  32. 

Transition,  168. 

"Treasure  Island,"  Stevenson,  200. 

Unity,  in  the  composition,  167, 188, 
193,  207;  in  letters,  65;  in  the 
paragraph,  27,  34,  87;  in  the  sen- 
tence, 131,  135. 

"Vailima  Letters,"  Stevenson,  78, 

165. 
Verbal  nouns,  100. 


Verbs,  98,  107-121;  auxiliary,  113; 
strong,  120;  transitive  and  intran- 
sitive, 108. 

Verse,  the  musical  reading  of, 
231-236;  kinds,  235;  rests,  234; 
scansion,  235;  variations  in 
meter,  233. 

Vocabulary,  142;  growing,  151; 
large  and  exact,  148;  ready,  142. 

Voice,  108,  109,  138. 

Volition,  114-116. 

"Voyage,  The,"  Irving,  28. 

Warner,  C.  D.,  How  I  killed  a 
Bear,  183;   Floating,  215. 

Webster,  "  Defense  of  the  Ken- 
nistons,"  224. 

Will  and  shall,  1 13-1 1 7. 

Words,  exact  meanings  of,  143, 
148;  figurative,  158-163;  forcible, 
152-156;  helps  in  choosing,  147; 
in  good  use,  144;  lists  of  words 
to  be  used  with  care:  coordinate 
conjunctions,  125;  miscellaneous 
group,  150-151;  nouns,  149-150; 
prepositions,  124;  verbs,  150; 
new,  148;    simple,  152;    specific, 

155- 

Would,  1 1 5- 1 17. 

Writing,  an  aid  to  accurate  expres- 
sion of  thought,  2;  a  matter  of 
habit,  6;    three  directions  for,  2. 

Young  Protector,  A,  pupil's  theme, 
29. 

"  Zoroaster,"  F.  Marion  Crawford, 
117,  199. 


ANNOUNCEMENTS 


ENGLISH  COMPOSITION  AND 
RHETORIC 

Textbooks  aJid  works  of  reference  for  high  schools, 
academies,  and  colleges 


Baker  and  Huntington:    Principles  of  Argumentation  (Revised 

and  Enlarged  Edition) $i--5 

Cairns:  Forms  of  Discourse  (Revised  Edition) 1.15 

With  an  Introductory  Chapter  on  Style. 

Cairns  :  Introduction  to  Rhetoric 90 

Gardiner,  Kittredge,  and  Arnold :  Manual  of  Composition  and 

Rhetoric 100 

Gardiner,  Kittredge,  and   Arnold :    Elements  of  English   Com- 
position   1. 00 

(The  Mother  Tongue,  Book  III.) 

Genung:  Handbook  of  Rhetorical  Analysis        1.12 

I-   Studies  in  Style  and  Invention,  designed  to  Accompany  the 
Author-s  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

Genung:  Outlines  of  Rhetoric i.oo 

Genung:  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric 1.25 

Genung:  The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric 1.40 

Greenough,  Nutter,  and  Hersey  :  English  Composition  Notebook       .50 

In  Bifiex  Binder        75 

Hanson  :  English  Composition So 

Lockwood:  Lessons  in  English 1.12 

Lockwood  and  Emerson  :  Composition  and  Rhetoric      ....     i. 00 

Newcomer  :  Practical  Course  in  English  Composition So 

Nutter,    Hersey,    and    Greenough :    Specimens    of   Prose    Com- 
position   1-25 

Scott  and  Denny  :  The  Rhetoric  Tablet 15 

No.  I.   White  paper  (ruled).    No.  2.   Tinted  paper  (ruled). 
Sixty  sheets  in  each. 

Smith:  Studies  in  English  Syntax 50 

Tompkins:   Science  of  Discourse 100 


GINN  AND   COMPANY   Publishers 


SPECIMENS    OF    PROSE 
COMPOSITION 

By  C.  R.  NUTTER,  F.  W.  C.  HERSEY,  and  C.  N.  GREENOUGH 


The  Most  Practical  Collection  of  Models  for  School 
Use  yet  put  Together 


List  price,  ^1.25 

SPECIMENS  OF  PROSE  COMPOSITION"  offers  the 
illustrative  examples  of  which  every  teacher  must  feel 
the  need  in  teaching  exposition,  description,  narration,  and 
the  other  forms  of  writing  that  go  to  make  up  the  study  of 
rhetoric.  These  examples  are  arranged  in  groups  under  the 
different  subjects,  in  the  natural  order  of  their  treatment. 

Such  illustrative  material  has  usually  been  supplied  only 
at  a  great  expense  of  time  and  labor  by  searching  among 
the  essayists,  novelists,  and  even  magazine  writers.  This 
manual  makes  it  possible  to  place  in  the  hands  of  every 
pupil  the  desired  examples,  selected  after  careful  search  by 
teachers  of  experience  and  knowledge,  and  arranged  in  just 
the  order  for  use. 

The  "selections"  cover  a  wide  field  of  literature  and  are 
peculiarly  free  from  dull  or  hackneyed  material.  They  are 
not  only  ninnerous,  choice,  varied,  and  interesting  but  they 
show  that  their  excellence  is  attainable  by  the  pupil.  With 
this  idea  particularly  in  view,  themes  by  students  them- 
selves —  no  less  good  English,  but  plainly  possible  to  other 
students  —  have  been  included. 


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